Isotopic life-history signatures are retained in modern and ancient Atlantic bluefin tuna vertebrae.

Isotopic, tagging and diet studies of modern-day teleosts lacked the ability to contextualise life-history and trophic dynamics with a historical perspective, when exploitation rates were lower and climatic conditions differed. Isotopic analysis of vertebrae, the most plentiful hard-part in archaeological and museum collections, can potentially fill this data-gap. Chemical signatures of habitat and diet use during growth are retained by vertebrae during bone formation. Nonetheless, to fulfil their potential to reveal life-history and trophic dynamics, we need a better understanding of the time frame recorded by vertebrae, currently lacking due to a poor understanding of fish bone remodelling. To address this issue, the authors serially-sectioned four vertebral centra of the highly migratory Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus; BFT) captured off Sardinia (Italy) and analysed their isotopic composition. They show how carbon (δ13 C), nitrogen (δ15 N) and sulphur (δ34 S) isotope values can vary significantly across BFT vertebrae growth-axes, revealing patterning in dietary life histories. Further, they find that similar patterns are revealed through incremental isotopic analysis of inner and outer vertebrae centra samples from 13 archaeological BFT vertebrae dating between the 9th and13th centuries CE. The results indicate that multi-year foraging signatures are retained in vertebrae and allow for the study of life histories in both modern and paleo-environments. These novel methods can be extended across teleost taxa owing to their potential to inform management and conservation on how teleost trophic dynamics change over time and what their long-term environmental, ecological and anthropological drivers are.

New molecular tools for the identification of 2 endangered smooth-hound sharks, Mustelus mustelus and Mustelus punctulatus.

The smooth-hounds represent a significant proportion of the elasmobranch catch in the Adriatic basin of the Mediterranean Sea, where the common (Mustelus mustelus) and blackspotted (Mustelus punctulatus) smooth-hounds co-occur. The 2 species share several morphological and morphometric characters that lead to frequent misidentification. In order to provide information useful for their species identification, we performed a morphological identification of several Mustelus specimens to select individuals unambiguously attributed to 1 of the 2 species, and assayed these with 3 new molecular tests. First, we developed and validated a mitochondrial DNA assay based on species-specific amplification of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI). Second, a fragment analysis of 15 microsatellites cross-amplified from several triakid species was performed to identify diagnostic loci. Finally, a length difference was identified in the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) region and a diagnostic test based on its amplification was established. All the samples classified morphologically as M. mustelus and M. punctulatus showed a species-specific profile using all the 3 molecular tests. In addition, cross-amplification of microsatellites allowed identification of 9 highly polymorphic loci that will be useful for the study of the mating system and population differentiation of the 2 species.

Outlier SNP markers reveal fine-scale genetic structuring across European hake populations (Merluccius merluccius).

Shallow population structure is generally reported for most marine fish and explained as a consequence of high dispersal, connectivity and large population size. Targeted gene analyses and more recently genome-wide studies have challenged such view, suggesting that adaptive divergence might occur even when neutral markers provide genetic homogeneity across populations. Here, 381 SNPs located in transcribed regions were used to assess large- and fine-scale population structure in the European hake (Merluccius merluccius), a widely distributed demersal species of high priority for the European fishery. Analysis of 850 individuals from 19 locations across the entire distribution range showed evidence for several outlier loci, with significantly higher resolving power. While 299 putatively neutral SNPs confirmed the genetic break between basins (F(CT) = 0.016) and weak differentiation within basins, outlier loci revealed a dramatic divergence between Atlantic and Mediterranean populations (F(CT) range 0.275-0.705) and fine-scale significant population structure. Outlier loci separated North Sea and Northern Portugal populations from all other Atlantic samples and revealed a strong differentiation among Western, Central and Eastern Mediterranean geographical samples. Significant correlation of allele frequencies at outlier loci with seawater surface temperature and salinity supported the hypothesis that populations might be adapted to local conditions. Such evidence highlights the importance of integrating information from neutral and adaptive evolutionary patterns towards a better assessment of genetic diversity. Accordingly, the generated outlier SNP data could be used for tackling illegal practices in hake fishing and commercialization as well as to develop explicit spatial models for defining management units and stock boundaries.

Spatio-temporal population structuring and genetic diversity retention in depleted Atlantic bluefin tuna of the Mediterranean Sea.

Fishery genetics have greatly changed our understanding of population dynamics and structuring in marine fish. In this study, we show that the Atlantic Bluefin tuna (ABFT, Thunnus thynnus), an oceanic predatory species exhibiting highly migratory behavior, large population size, and high potential for dispersal during early life stages, displays significant genetic differences over space and time, both at the fine and large scales of variation. We compared microsatellite variation of contemporary (n = 256) and historical (n = 99) biological samples of ABFTs of the central-western Mediterranean Sea, the latter dating back to the early 20th century. Measures of genetic differentiation and a general heterozygote deficit suggest that differences exist among population samples, both now and 96-80 years ago. Thus, ABFTs do not represent a single panmictic population in the Mediterranean Sea. Statistics designed to infer changes in population size, both from current and past genetic variation, suggest that some Mediterranean ABFT populations, although still not severely reduced in their genetic potential, might have suffered from demographic declines. The short-term estimates of effective population size are straddled on the minimum threshold (effective population size = 500) indicated to maintain genetic diversity and evolutionary potential across several generations in natural populations.

To Be, or Not to Be: That Is the Hamletic Question of Cryptic Evolution in the Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Raja miraletus Species Complex.

Despite a high species diversity, skates (Rajiformes) exhibit remarkably conservative morphology and ecology. Limited trait variations occur within and between species, and cryptic species have been reported among sister and non-sister taxa, suggesting that species complexes may be subject to stabilising selection. Three sibling species are currently recognised in the Raja miraletus complex: (i) R. miraletus occurring along the Portuguese and Mediterranean coasts, (ii) R. parva in the Central-Eastern Atlantic off West Africa and (iii) R. ocellifera in the Western Indian Ocean off South Africa. In the present study, the genetic variation at mitochondrial and nuclear markers was estimated in the species complex by analysing 323 individuals sampled across most of its geographical distribution area to test the hypothesis that restricted gene flow and genetic divergence within species reflect known climate and bio-oceanographic discontinuities. Our results support previous morphological studies and confirm the known taxonomic boundaries of the three recognised species. In addition, we identified multiple weakly differentiated clades in the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean, at least two additional cryptic taxa off Senegal and Angola, a pronounced differentiation of ancient South African clades. The hidden genetic structure presented here may represent a valuable support to species' conservation action plans.

Thermal sensitivity of field metabolic rate predicts differential futures for bluefin tuna juveniles across the Atlantic Ocean.

Changing environmental temperatures impact the physiological performance of fishes, and consequently their distributions. A mechanistic understanding of the linkages between experienced temperature and the physiological response expressed within complex natural environments is often lacking, hampering efforts to project impacts especially when future conditions exceed previous experience. In this study, we use natural chemical tracers to determine the individual experienced temperatures and expressed field metabolic rates of Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) during their first year of life. Our findings reveal that the tuna exhibit a preference for temperatures 2-4 °C lower than those that maximise field metabolic rates, thereby avoiding temperatures warm enough to limit metabolic performance. Based on current IPCC projections, our results indicate that historically-important spawning and nursery grounds for bluefin tuna will become thermally limiting due to warming within the next 50 years. However, limiting global warming to below 2 °C would preserve habitat conditions in the Mediterranean Sea for this species. Our approach, which is based on field observations, provides predictions of animal performance and behaviour that are not constrained by laboratory conditions, and can be extended to any marine teleost species for which otoliths are available.

DNA metabarcoding suggests dietary niche partitioning in the Adriatic European hake.

The Northern Adriatic Sea (FAO Geographical Sub-Area 17) is one of the most productive fishing areas of the Mediterranean Sea and it includes a broad diversity of habitats. In the Northern Adriatic basin, the Pomo Pit (200-273 m of depth) is one of the most important areas of aggregation for some demersal stocks shared in the Adriatic Sea and it is an important spawning/nursery area of the European hake (Merluccius merluccius). Through a metabarcoding approach we investigated the feeding habits of European hake, both inside and outside the Pomo Pit, and their temporal variability comparing samples collected in 2016 and 2014. Our analyses proved the presence of an ontogenetic shift from a diet based mainly on crustaceans in juveniles to a more piscivorous feeding behaviour in adult hakes and suggested the presence of a specific niche partitioning and food preferences between hakes living inside and outside the Pomo Pit. The main differences among adult hakes refer to the presence of molluscs in the stomachs of hakes collected within the Pomo Pit and the presence of high depth prey species (i.e., Micromesistius poutassou). Metabarcoding revealed the relevant ecological role played by the Pomo Pit in M. merluccius feeding behaviour and ontogenetic development, promoting a careful ecosystem-based management of fisheries in this area through focused conservation measures.

Molecular Taxonomy and Diversification of Atlantic Skates (Chondrichthyes, Rajiformes): Adding More Pieces to the Puzzle of Their Evolutionary History.

Conservation and long-term management plans of marine species need to be based upon the universally recognized key-feature of species identity. This important assignment is particularly challenging in skates (Rajiformes) in which the phenotypic similarity between some taxa and the individual variability in others, hampers accurate species identification. Here, 432 individual skate samples collected from four major ocean areas of the Atlantic were barcoded and taxonomically analysed. A BOLD project ELASMO ATL was implemented with the aim of establishing a new fully available and well curated barcode library containing both biological and molecular information. The evolutionary histories of the 38 skate taxa were estimated with two concatenated mitochondrial markers (COI and NADH2) through Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian inference. New evolutionary lineages within the genus Raja were discovered off Angola, where paleogeographic history coupled with oceanographic discontinuities could have contributed to the establishment of isolated refugia, playing a fundamental role among skates' speciation events. These data successfully resolved many taxonomic ambiguities, identified cryptic diversity within valid species and demonstrated a highly cohesive monophyletic clustering among the order, laying the background for further inference of evolutionary patterns suitable for addressing management and conservation issues.

Ancient DNA SNP-panel data suggests stability in bluefin tuna genetic diversity despite centuries of fluctuating catches in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean.

Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus; BFT) abundance was depleted in the late 20th and early 21st century due to overfishing. Historical catch records further indicate that the abundance of BFT in the Mediterranean has been fluctuating since at least the 16th century. Here we build upon previous work on ancient DNA of BFT in the Mediterranean by comparing contemporary (2009-2012) specimens with archival (1911-1926) and archaeological (2nd century BCE-15th century CE) specimens that represent population states prior to these two major periods of exploitation, respectively. We successfully genotyped and analysed 259 contemporary and 123 historical (91 archival and 32 archaeological) specimens at 92 SNP loci that were selected for their ability to differentiate contemporary populations or their association with core biological functions. We found no evidence of genetic bottlenecks, inbreeding or population restructuring between temporal sample groups that might explain what has driven catch fluctuations since the 16th century. We also detected a putative adaptive response, involving the cytoskeletal protein synemin which may be related to muscle stress. However, these results require further investigation with more extensive genome-wide data to rule out demographic changes due to overfishing, and other natural and anthropogenic factors, in addition to elucidating the adaptive drivers related to these.

Canning Processes Reduce the DNA-Based Traceability of Commercial Tropical Tunas.

Canned tuna is one of the most widely traded seafood products internationally and is of growing demand. There is an increasing concern over the vulnerability of canned tuna supply chains to species mislabelling and fraud. Extensive processing conditions in canning operations can lead to the degradation and fragmentation of DNA, complicating product traceability. We here employed a forensically validated DNA barcoding tool (cytochrome b partial sequences) to assess the effects of canning processes on DNA degradation and the identification of four tropical tuna species (yellowfin, bigeye, skipjack and longtail tuna) collected on a global scale, along their commercial chains. Each species was studied under five different canning processes i.e., freezing, defrosting, cooking, and canning in oil and brine, in order to investigate how these affect DNA-based species identification and traceability. The highest percentage of nucleotide substitutions were observed after brine-canning operations and were greatest for yellowfin and skipjack tuna. Overall, we found that DNA degradation significantly increased along the tuna canning process for most specimens. Consequently, most of the specimens canned in oil or brine were misidentified due to the high rate of nucleotide substitution in diagnostic sequences.

Author Correction: Gene-associated markers provide tools for tackling illegal fishing and false eco-certification.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

The population genomics of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) at global geographic scale challenges current stock delineation.

Yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares, is one of the most important seafood commodities in the world. Despite its great biological and economic importance, conflicting evidence arises from classical genetic and tagging studies concerning the yellowfin tuna population structure at local and global oceanic scales. Access to more powerful and cost effective genetic tools would represent the first step towards resolving the population structure of yellowfin tuna across its distribution range. Using a panel of 939 neutral Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs), and the most comprehensive data set of yellowfin samples available so far, we found genetic differentiation among the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. The genetic stock structure analysis carried out with 33 outlier SNPs, putatively under selection, identified discrete populations within the Pacific Ocean and, for the first time, also within the Atlantic Ocean. Stock assessment approaches that consider genetic differences at neutral and adaptive genomic loci should be routinely implemented to check the status of the yellowfin tuna, prevent illegal trade, and develop more sustainable management measures.

Natural history and molecular evolution of demersal Mediterranean sharks and skates inferred by comparative phylogeographic and demographic analyses.

BACKGROUND: The unique and complex paleoclimatic and paleogeographic events which affected the Mediterranean Sea since late Miocene deeply influenced the distribution and evolution of marine organisms and shaped their genetic structure. Following the Messinian salinity crisis and the sea-level fluctuations during the Pleistocene, several Mediterranean marine species developed deep genetic differentiation, and some underwent rapid radiation. Here, we consider two of the most prioritized groups for conservation in the light of their evolutionary history: sharks and rays (elasmobranchs). This paper deals with a comparative multispecies analysis of phylogeographic structure and historical demography in two pairs of sympatric, phylogenetically- and ecologically-related elasmobranchs, two scyliorhinid catsharks (Galeus melastomus, Scyliorhinus canicula) and two rajid skates (Raja clavata, Raja miraletus). Sampling and experimental analyses were designed to primarily test if the Sicilian Channel can be considered as effective eco-physiological barrier for Mediterranean demersal sympatric elasmobranchs. METHODS: The phylogeography and the historical demography of target species were inferred by analysing the nucleotide variation of three mitochondrial DNA markers (i.e., partial sequence of COI, NADH2 and CR) obtained from a total of 248 individuals sampled in the Western and Eastern Mediterranean Sea as well as in the adjacent northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Phylogeographic analysis was performed by haplotype networking and testing spatial genetic differentiation of samples (i.e., analysis of molecular variance and of principal components). Demographic history of Mediterranean populations was reconstructed using mismatch distribution and Bayesian Skyline Plot analyses. RESULTS: No spatial genetic differentiation was identified in either catshark species, while phylogeographic structure of lineages was identified in both skates, with R. miraletus more structured than R. clavata. However, such structuring of skate lineages was not consistent with the separation between Western and Eastern Mediterranean. Sudden demographic expansions occurred synchronously during the upper Pleistocene (40,000-60,000 years ago) in both skates and G. melastomus, likely related to optimal environmental conditions. In contrast, S. canicula experienced a slow and constant increase in population size over the last 350,000 years. DISCUSSION: The comparative analysis of phylogeographic and historical demographic patterns for the Mediterranean populations of these elasmobranchs reveals that historical phylogeographic breaks have not had a large impact on their microevolution. We hypothesize that interactions between environmental and ecological/physiological traits may have been the driving force in the microevolution of these demersal elasmobranch species in the Mediterranean rather than oceanographic barriers.

Spatial dynamics and mixing of bluefin tuna in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea revealed using next-generation sequencing.

The Atlantic bluefin tuna is a highly migratory species emblematic of the challenges associated with shared fisheries management. In an effort to resolve the species' stock dynamics, a genomewide search for spatially informative single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) was undertaken, by way of sequencing reduced representation libraries. An allele frequency approach to SNP discovery was used, combining the data of 555 larvae and young-of-the-year (LYOY) into pools representing major geographical areas and mapping against a newly assembled genomic reference. From a set of 184,895 candidate loci, 384 were selected for validation using 167 LYOY. A highly discriminatory genotyping panel of 95 SNPs was ultimately developed by selecting loci with the most pronounced differences between western Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea LYOY. The panel was evaluated by genotyping a different set of LYOY (n = 326), and from these, 77.8% and 82.1% were correctly assigned to western Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea origins, respectively. The panel revealed temporally persistent differentiation among LYOY from the western Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea (FST  = 0.008, p = .034). The composition of six mixed feeding aggregations in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea was characterized using genotypes from medium (n = 184) and large (n = 48) adults, applying population assignment and mixture analyses. The results provide evidence of persistent population structuring across broad geographic areas and extensive mixing in the Atlantic Ocean, particularly in the mid-Atlantic Bight and Gulf of St. Lawrence. The genomic reference and genotyping tools presented here constitute novel resources useful for future research and conservation efforts.

Molecular and karyological aspects of Batoidea (Chondrichthyes, Elasmobranchi) phylogeny.

Although considerable progress has been made in elucidating the relationships within the Chondrichthyes, there is no agreement as it concerns the systematics of Batoidea, the most derived superorder among cartilaginous fishes, and many different interpretations exist. Our investigation provides the first assessment of relationships among the described batoid species using sequences from both mtDNA and nuclear genes as well as karyological morphology. Our work consists primarily in reconstructing the phylogenetic relationships of Batoidea by examining the mtDNA (16S) and nuclear gene (18S) sequences from 11 batoid species. The three analytical methods (NJ, MP and Bayesian analysis) grouped Rajiformes, Myliobatiformes and Rhinobatiformes. In these trees the two torpedoes diverge from the other batoid fishes. We also compare the molecular data with the available karyological evidence, which consist of the diploid number and the karyotype morphology of eight species belonging to the four orders examined. The results show that the karyological structure in the different species is generally consistent with the various phylogenetical trees, and that Torpediniformes confirm their unique genome organization.

Genetic differentiation and phylogeography of Mediterranean-North Eastern Atlantic blue shark (Prionace glauca, L. 1758) using mitochondrial DNA: panmixia or complex stock structure?

BACKGROUND: The blue shark (Prionace glauca, Linnaeus 1758) is one of the most abundant epipelagic shark inhabiting all the oceans except the poles, including the Mediterranean Sea, but its genetic structure has not been confirmed at basin and interoceanic distances. Past tagging programs in the Atlantic Ocean failed to find evidence of migration of blue sharks between the Mediterranean and the adjacent Atlantic, despite the extreme vagility of the species. Although the high rate of by-catch in the Mediterranean basin, to date no genetic study on Mediterranean blue shark was carried out, which constitutes a significant knowledge gap, considering that this population is classified as "Critically Endangered", unlike its open-ocean counterpart. METHODS: Blue shark phylogeography and demography in the Mediterranean Sea and North-Eastern Atlantic Ocean were inferred using two mitochondrial genes (Cytb and control region) amplified from 207 and 170 individuals respectively, collected from six localities across the Mediterranean and two from the North-Eastern Atlantic. RESULTS: Although no obvious pattern of geographical differentiation was apparent from the haplotype network, Φst analyses indicated significant genetic structure among four geographical groups. Demographic analyses suggest that these populations have experienced a constant population expansion in the last 0.4-0.1 million of years. DISCUSSION: The weak, but significant, differences in Mediterranean and adjacent North-eastern Atlantic blue sharks revealed a complex phylogeographic structure, which appears to reject the assumption of panmixia across the study area, but also supports a certain degree of population connectivity across the Strait of Gibraltar, despite the lack of evidence of migratory movements observed by tagging data. Analyses of spatial genetic structure in relation to sex-ratio and size could indicate some level of sex/stage biased migratory behaviour.

Improving the Conservation of Mediterranean Chondrichthyans: The ELASMOMED DNA Barcode Reference Library.

Cartilaginous fish are particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic stressors and environmental change because of their K-selected reproductive strategy. Accurate data from scientific surveys and landings are essential to assess conservation status and to develop robust protection and management plans. Currently available data are often incomplete or incorrect as a result of inaccurate species identifications, due to a high level of morphological stasis, especially among closely related taxa. Moreover, several diagnostic characters clearly visible in adult specimens are less evident in juveniles. Here we present results generated by the ELASMOMED Consortium, a regional network aiming to sample and DNA-barcode the Mediterranean Chondrichthyans with the ultimate goal to provide a comprehensive DNA barcode reference library. This library will support and improve the molecular taxonomy of this group and the effectiveness of management and conservation measures. We successfully barcoded 882 individuals belonging to 42 species (17 sharks, 24 batoids and one chimaera), including four endemic and several threatened ones. Morphological misidentifications were found across most orders, further confirming the need for a comprehensive DNA barcoding library as a valuable tool for the reliable identification of specimens in support of taxonomist who are reviewing current identification keys. Despite low intraspecific variation among their barcode sequences and reduced samples size, five species showed preliminary evidence of phylogeographic structure. Overall, the ELASMOMED initiative further emphasizes the key role accurate DNA barcoding libraries play in establishing reliable diagnostic species specific features in otherwise taxonomically problematic groups for biodiversity management and conservation actions.

Morphology and Species Composition of Southern Adriatic Sea Leptocephali Evaluated Using DNA Barcoding.

Leptocephali are the characteristic larvae of the superorder Elopomorpha that are difficult to identify at the species level. In this study, we used DNA barcoding (i.e. short genetic sequences of DNA used as unique species tags) coupled with classical taxonomic methods to identify leptocephali in the southern Adriatic Sea. This information will provide an assessment of the biodiversity of the eel larvae in this region. A total of 2,785 leptocephali were collected, and using external morphology were assigned to seven morphotypes: Ariosoma balearicum, Conger conger, Gnathophis mystax, Facciolella sp., Nettastoma melanurum, Dalophis imberbis and Chlopsis bicolor. Collectively, these seven morphotypes are considered to be a good proxy for the Anguilliformes community (the main order of the Elopomorpha) in the southern Adriatic Sea (to date, seven families and sixteen species have been recorded in this region). Interestingly, the higher number of G. mystax larvae collected suggests an increased abundance of this genus. To validate the morphological identifications, we sequenced 61 leptocephali (at a 655 bp fragment from the cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 mitochondrial region) and developed barcode vouchers for the seven morphotypes. Using genetic information from reference databases, we validated three of these morphotypes. Where reference sequences were unavailable, we generated barcodes for both adult and juvenile forms to provide additional genetic information. Using this integrated approach allowed us to characterize a new species of Facciolella in the Adriatic Sea for the first time. Moreover, we also revealed a lack of differentiation, at the species level, between G. mistax and G. bathytopos, a western Atlantic Ocean species. Our morphological and barcode data have been published in the Barcoding of the Adriatic Leptocephali database. This work represents the first contribution to a wider project that aims to create a barcode database to support the assessment of leptocephali diversity in the Mediterranean Sea.

Methodological assessment of 2b-RAD genotyping technique for population structure inferences in yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares).

Global population genetic structure of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) is still poorly understood despite its relevance for the tuna fishery industry. Low levels of genetic differentiation among oceans speak in favour of the existence of a single panmictic population worldwide of this highly migratory fish. However, recent studies indicated genetic structuring at a much smaller geographic scales than previously considered, pointing out that YFT population genetic structure has not been properly assessed so far. In this study, we demonstrated for the first time, the utility of 2b-RAD genotyping technique for investigating population genetic diversity and differentiation in high gene-flow species. Running de novo pipeline in Stacks, a total of 6772 high-quality genome-wide SNPs were identified across Atlantic, Indian and Pacific population samples representing all major distribution areas. Preliminary analyses showed shallow but significant population structure among oceans (FST=0.0273; P-value<0.01). Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components endorsed the presence of genetically discrete yellowfin tuna populations among three oceanic pools. Although such evidence needs to be corroborated by increasing sample size, these results showed the efficiency of this genotyping technique in assessing genetic divergence in a marine fish with high dispersal potential.

Sequencing and expression pattern of inducible heat shock gene products in the European flat oyster, Ostrea edulis.

Heat shock proteins are a multigene family of polypeptides composed of the constitutively-expressed heat shock cognate (HSC) members and of the stress-inducible (HSP) proteins, whose expression is specifically induced by stress factors. Constitutive and inducible 70 kDa isoforms are reported in vertebrates and invertebrates. HSCs are expressed in all bivalve molluscs studied to date, while the occurrence of strictly heat-inducible HSPs seems a distinctive feature of oysters. To gain more insight into the molecular features of the Ostrea edulis HSP70, we have cloned and sequenced the gene product putatively encoding for the heat-inducible isoform HSP69 and examined the pattern of expression after heat exposure. Four different clones of approximately 1794 bp were obtained that share a high degree of homology with heat-inducible HSP70 from other bivalves. Amino acid sequence comparisons indicated that the main structural features of the heat-inducible HSP70 are highly conserved within the O. edulis HSP70 clones, while lower sequence homology occurred with respect to HSC70 transcripts. Northern blot analysis indicated that HSP69 mRNA was absent in control animals but induced after heat shock (1 h at 32 degrees C or higher). Induction was detectable immediately after heat shock, reaching a maximum after 2 to 3 h of post-stress recovery at 18 degrees C, and decreasing thereafter. A phylogenetic analysis of the HSP70 family members from oyster and other bivalves revealed a substantial conservation in the evolutionary pattern among constitutive and inducible gene products, from invertebrates to higher vertebrates.