Epidemiological surveillance of chikungunya fever in Mexico since its introduction in 2014-2016 and identification of circulating genotypes.

In 2014, the chikungunya virus (CHIKV) was detected for the first time in Mexico, the identified strain was the one corresponding to the Asian genotype which was phylogenetically grouped with the strains that circulated in the British Virgin Islands outbreak and was later classified with lineages of Caribbean strains. In three years, 13,569 cases of chikungunya were registered in Mexico. Although the transmission and spread of the virus are now considered a moderate risk, the danger that the virus reemerges is not ruled out due to the infestation of Aedes mosquitoes. In this study, we reviewed the chikungunya fever (CHIKF) cases reported between 2014 and 2016 to reanalyze the data. Seventeen cases were selected from different states where the circulation of the virus had been reported. Statistical data were analyzed and a retrospective analysis was carried out. Nucleic acid sequences were determined of these 17 samples. 2015 was the year with the highest number of cases (92.8%) and they were detected in 28 states of the country. There is a predominance of females, and the most affected age group was between 25 and 44 years. In 2016, CHIKV genotypes were not known, in this study the presence of the Asian genotype of Caribbean lineage was confirmed. The presence of the West African and ECSA genotypes was phylogenetically ruled out. The sequences obtained were deposited in GeneBank.

Seroprevalence of Poliomyelitis Antibodies Among Children Aged 1 to 4 Years Old and Factors Associated With Poliovirus Susceptibility; Mexican Health and Nutrition Survey, 2012.

Background: An essential component of the "Polio Eradication and Endgame Strategic Plan 2013-2018" is the evaluation of population immunity. Mexico introduced the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) into its routine immunization schedule in 2007 but continued to give trivalent oral polio vaccine OPV twice a year during National Health Weeks through 2016. Methods: To describe the seroprevalence of poliomyelitis among children one to four years old in Mexico and analyze risk factors for susceptibility. We detected antibodies to poliovirus type 1 by microneutralization test in 966 serum samples randomly selected from the National Health and Nutrition Survey, 2012. We assessed variables associated with susceptibility using multivariable logistic regression. Results: The overall weighted seroprevalence of the general population was 98.39% (95% confidence interval [CI] 96.76-99.21). We found significant differences of prevalence according to age (94.39%, 95% CI 87.56-97.58; 99.02%, 95% CI 95.68-99.79; 99.82%, 95% CI 98.77-99.98; and 100% among children 1, 2, 3, and 4 years old respectively) and number of IPV doses (96.91%, 95% CI 90.55-99.44; 100%; 97.85%, 95% CI 94.46-99.18; and 99.92%, 95% CI 99.45-99.98 for 1 2, 3, and 4 number of doses, respectively). Multivariate analyses showed that susceptibility was associated with younger age, fewer doses of IPV, and certain socioeconomic levels. Conclusions: Overall seroprevalence was high. However, we found susceptible children among younger ages and children with fewer or unknown IPV doses belonging to certain socioeconomic strata. Results are relevant for countries transitioning from OPV to IPV and underline the importance of achieving high coverage with IPV.

Genotypic variability analysis of DENV-1 in Mexico reveals the presence of a novel Mexican lineage.

Here, we report for the first time the circulation of dengue virus type 1 (DENV-1) belonging to the lineage IV of genotype V (African American genotype) based on phylogenetic analysis of nucleotide sequences from 10 DENV-1-positive samples obtained in Mexico between 2012 and 2014. Our data revealed that the lineages III and IV of DENV-1 genotype V were found circulating during the same period, probably explaining the rise in the number of cases of severe dengue during that period.

Molecular characterization of atypical antigenic variants of canine rabies virus reveals its reintroduction by wildlife vectors in southeastern Mexico.

Rabies is an infectious viral disease that is practically always fatal following the onset of clinical signs. In Mexico, the last case of human rabies transmitted by dogs was reported in 2006 and canine rabies has declined significantly due to vaccination campaigns implemented in the country. Here we report on the molecular characterization of six rabies virus strains found in Yucatan and Chiapas, remarkably, four of them showed an atypical reaction pattern when antigenic characterization with a reduced panel of eight monoclonal antibodies was performed. Phylogenetic analyses on the RNA sequences unveiled that the three atypical strains from Yucatan are associated with skunks. Analysis using the virus entire genome showed that they belong to a different lineage distinct from the variants described for this animal species in Mexico. The Chiapas atypical strain was grouped in a lineage that was considered extinct, while the others are clustered within classic dog variants.

Evidence of the presence of the Zika virus in Mexico since early 2015.

To assess the possible circulation of Zika virus (ZIKV) prior to the first documented case in Mexico, we reanalyzed the stored samples from the states of Veracruz and Yucatán, which were originally collected to test for dengue (DENV) and chikungunya (CHIKV) but were negative for these viruses despite the symptomatology. The samples were originally collected between the 30 and 46 epidemiological weeks (EW) when the ZIKV was not yet declared as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). From the total 4016 negative samples, a total of one hundred samples, 50 from Veracruz (CHIK- DENV-) and 50 from Yucatán (4 CHIK- DENV- and 46 CHIK- or DENV-), were tested for Zika virus by using RT-PCR. Results showed that in Veracruz and Yucatán, 20 % (10/50) and 70 % (35/50) were, respectively, ZIKV positive, indicating unequivocally the presence of ZIKV at least since July 2015. We also tested non-confirmed suspect measles cases from early 2015 for ZIKV by RT-PCR. Remarkably in 11 Mexican states, 86 % (18/21) were positive with the earlier symptoms onset as early as May 2015. Finally, RT-PCR analyses on RNA extracted from Aedes aegypti mosquitoes captured from January to March 2015 showed the presence of ZIKV, strongly suggesting that the vector was already carrying the virus at the start of 2015.

Identification of Asian genotype of chikungunya virus isolated in Mexico.

We identified 25 autochthonous chikungunya virus cases in Mexico, initially detected by RT-PCR targeting the E1 gene and propagated in C6/36 Aedes albopictus cells, in 2014. To determine the type of virus found, in a previous report, the genomes of 2 CHIKV strains were fully sequenced. Genome sequence analysis revealed that these isolates from Mexico belonged to the Asian genotype, and a phylogenetic association with the circulating strain in the British Virgin Islands was also established in the same year. This was further supported by changes in specific amino acids, E2-V368A and 6K-L20M. For these reasons, it can be inferred that the route of virus entry to Mexico was held across the countries in the Caribbean and Central America. The presence of E1-A226V mutation associated with more efficient replication in the salivary gland of the A. albopictus mosquito was not observed. Interestingly, a newly acquired NSP4-S399C mutation was observed; however, the significance of changes in amino acid found in non-structural proteins in autochthonous strains remains to be elucidated.

Development and Evaluation of a Set of Spike and Receptor Binding Domain-Based Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays for SARS-CoV-2 Serological Testing.

The implementation and validation of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG serological assays are reported in this paper. S1 and RBD proteins were used to coat ELISA plates, and several secondary antibodies served as reporters. The assays were initially validated with 50 RT-PCR positive COVID-19 sera, which showed high IgG titers of mainly IgG1 isotype, followed by IgG3. Low or no IgG2 and IgG4 titers were detected. Then, the RBD/IgG assay was further validated with 887 serum samples from RT-PCR positive COVID-19 individuals collected at different times, including 7, 14, 21, and 40 days after the onset of symptoms. Most of the sera were IgG positive at day 40, with seroconversion happening after 14-21 days. A third party conducted an additional performance test of the RBD/IgG assay with 406 sera, including 149 RT-PCR positive COVID-19 samples, 229 RT-PCR negative COVID-19 individuals, and 28 sera from individuals with other viral infections not related to SARS-CoV-2. The sensitivity of the assay was 99.33%, with a specificity of 97.82%. All the sera collected from individuals with infectious diseases other than COVID-19 were negative. Given the robustness of this RBD/IgG assay, it received approval from the sanitary authority in Mexico (COFEPRIS) for production and commercialization under the name UDISTEST-V2G®.

Genome Sequence of a Rabies Virus Isolated from a Dog in Chiapas, Mexico, 2013.

Rabies virus (RABV), a member of the genus Lyssavirus, causes encephalitis that is almost always fatal following the onset of clinical signs. Here, we report the complete codifying sequence of an RABV isolated from a dog in Mexico. Molecular data showed that this strain belongs to the Chiapas lineage.

Detection of Zika virus in Aedes mosquitoes from Mexico.

Background: We report on the results of an entomovirological surveillance system of Aedes populations performed by the Ministry of Health of the central state of San Luis Potosí, Mexico. Methods: Indoor adult Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus pools collected at San Martín, Tamazunchale, Ciudad Valles, Metlapa, Ebano, Tamuin and Axtla during the dry season of 2016 were examined for the presence of dengue (DENV), chikungunya (CHIKV) and Zika (ZIKV) viruses using real-time PCR. Results: Both Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus were found to be infected with ZIKV in the absence of confirmed symptomatic human cases. Conclusions: The entomovirological surveillance system analysed here identified both Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus infected with ZIKV which triggered an immediate aggressive vector control campaign.

Complete Genome Sequence of Zika Virus Isolated in Mexico, 2016.

Zika virus belongs to the genus Flavivirus, and its spread remains an international public health emergency. In this report, we describe the obtainment and molecular characterization of a complete viral genome through the direct metagenomic analysis from saliva from an autochthonous transmission case in Mexico.

Complete genome sequences of chikungunya virus strains isolated in Mexico: first detection of imported and autochthonous cases.

The mosquito-borne chikungunya virus, an alphavirus of the Togaviridae family, is responsible for acute polyarthralgia epidemics. Here, we report the complete genome sequences of two chikungunya virus strains, InDRE04 and InDRE51, identified in the Mexican states of Jalisco and Chiapas in 2014. Phylogenetic analysis showed that both strains belong to the Asian genotype.