Corrigendum: NLRP12 attenuates colon inflammation by maintaining colonic microbial diversity and promoting protective commensal bacterial growth.

This corrects the article DOI: 10.1038/ni.3690.

NLRP12 attenuates colon inflammation by maintaining colonic microbial diversity and promoting protective commensal bacterial growth.

Inflammatory bowel diseases involve the dynamic interaction of host genetics, the microbiome and inflammatory responses. Here we found lower expression of NLRP12 (which encodes a negative regulator of innate immunity) in human ulcerative colitis, by comparing monozygotic twins and other patient cohorts. In parallel, Nlrp12 deficiency in mice caused increased basal colonic inflammation, which led to a less-diverse microbiome and loss of protective gut commensal strains (of the family Lachnospiraceae) and a greater abundance of colitogenic strains (of the family Erysipelotrichaceae). Dysbiosis and susceptibility to colitis associated with Nlrp12 deficency were reversed equally by treatment with antibodies targeting inflammatory cytokines and by the administration of beneficial commensal Lachnospiraceae isolates. Fecal transplants from mice reared in specific-pathogen-free conditions into germ-free Nlrp12-deficient mice showed that NLRP12 and the microbiome each contributed to immunological signaling that culminated in colon inflammation. These findings reveal a feed-forward loop in which NLRP12 promotes specific commensals that can reverse gut inflammation, while cytokine blockade during NLRP12 deficiency can reverse dysbiosis.

The innate immune receptor Nlrp12 suppresses autoimmunity to the retina.

BACKGROUND: Nod-like receptors (NLRs) are critical to innate immune activation and induction of adaptive T cell responses. Yet, their role in autoinflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) remains incompletely defined. The NLR, Nlrp12, has been reported to both inhibit and promote neuroinflammation in an animal model of multiple sclerosis (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, EAE), where its T cell-specific role has been investigated. Uveitis resulting from autoimmunity of the neuroretina, an extension of the CNS, involves a breach in immune privilege and entry of T cells into the eye. Here, we examined the contribution of Nlrp12 in a T cell-mediated model of uveitis, experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). METHODS: Mice were immunized with interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein peptide 1-20 (IRBP1-20) emulsified in Complete Freund's adjuvant, CFA. Uveitis was evaluated by clinical and histopathological scoring, and comparisons were made in WT vs. Nlrp12-/- mice, lymphopenic Rag1-/- mice reconstituted with WT vs. Nlrp12-/- CD4+ T cells, or among bone marrow (BM) chimeric mice. Antigen-specific Th-effector responses were evaluated by ELISA and intracellular cytokine staining. Cellular composition of uveitic eyes from WT or Nlrp12-/- mice was compared using flow cytometry. Expression of Nlrp12 and of cytokines/chemokines within the neuroretina was evaluated by immunoblotting and quantitative PCR. RESULTS: Nlrp12-/- mice developed exacerbated uveitis characterized by extensive vasculitis, chorioretinal infiltrates and photoreceptor damage. Nlrp12 was dispensable for T cell priming and differentiation of peripheral Th1 or Th17 cells, and uveitis in immunodeficient mice reconstituted with either Nlrp12-/- or WT T cells was similar. Collectively, this ruled out T cells as the source of Nlrp12-mediated protection to EAU. Uveitic Nlrp12-/- eyes had more pronounced myeloid cell accumulation than uveitic WT eyes. Transplantation of Nlrp12-/- BM resulted in increased susceptibility to EAU regardless of host genotype, but interestingly, a non-hematopoietic origin for Nlrp12 function was also observed. Indeed, Nlrp12 was found to be constitutively expressed in the neuroretina, where it suppressed chemokine/cytokine induction. CONCLUSIONS: Our data identify a combinatorial role for Nlrp12 in dampening autoimmunity of the neuroretina. These findings could provide a pathway for development of therapies for uveitis and potentially other autoinflammatory/autoimmune diseases of the CNS.

MicroRNA-141 regulates the expression level of ICAM-1 on endothelium to decrease myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury.

A growing number of studies have suggested microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in the modulation of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (MI/R) injury; however, the role of endogenous miRNAs targeting endothelial cells (ECs) and its interaction with ICAM-1 in the setting of MI/R remain poorly understood. Our microarray results showed that miR-146a, miR-146b-5p, miR-155*, miR-155, miR-497, and miR-451 were significantly upregulated, whereas, miR-141 and miR-564 were significantly downregulated in the ECs challenged with TNF-α for 6 h. Real-time PCR analyses additionally validated that the expression levels of miR-146a, miR-155*, and miR-141 were consistent with the microarray results. Then, ICAM-1 was identified as a novel target of miR-141 by Target Scan software and the reporter gene system. Further functional experiments showed that elevated levels of miR-141 inhibited ICAM-1 expression and diminished leukocytes adhesion to ECs in vitro. In an in vivo murine model of MI/R injury, pretreatment with miR-141 mimics through the tail vein downregulated the expression level of ICAM-1 in heart and attenuated MI/R injury as evidenced by decreased infarct size and decline of serum cardial troponin I (cTnI) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) concentration. The cardioprotective effects of miR-141 mimics may be attributed to the decreased infiltration of CD11b(+) cells and F4/80(+) macrophages into ischemic myocardium tissue. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that miR-141, as a novel repressor of ICAM-1, is involved in the attenuation of MI/R injury via antithetical regulation of ICAM-1 and inflammatory cells infiltration. Thus miR-141 may constitute a new therapeutic target in the setting of ischemic heart disease.

mRNA vaccines encoding influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) elicits immunity in mice from influenza A virus challenge.

Influenza viruses cause epidemics and can cause pandemics with substantial morbidity with some mortality every year. Seasonal influenza vaccines have incomplete effectiveness and elicit a narrow antibody response that often does not protect against mutations occurring in influenza viruses. Thus, various vaccine approaches have been investigated to improve safety and efficacy. Here, we evaluate an mRNA influenza vaccine encoding hemagglutinin (HA) proteins in a BALB/c mouse model. The results show that mRNA vaccination elicits neutralizing and serum antibodies to each influenza virus strain contained in the current quadrivalent vaccine that is designed to protect against four different influenza viruses including two influenza A viruses (IAV) and two influenza B (IBV), as well as several antigenically distinct influenza virus strains in both hemagglutination inhibition assay (HAI) and virus neutralization assays. The quadrivalent mRNA vaccines had antibody titers comparable to the antibodies elicited by the monovalent vaccines to each tested virus regardless of dosage following an mRNA booster vaccine. Mice vaccinated with mRNA encoding an H1 HA had decreased weight loss and decreased lung viral titers compared to mice not vaccinated with an mRNA encoding an H1 HA. Overall, this study demonstrates the efficacy of mRNA-based seasonal influenza vaccines are their potential to replace both the currently available split-inactivated, and live-attenuated seasonal influenza vaccines.

Regulation of class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC) by nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat-containing (NLR) proteins.

Most of the nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat (NLR) proteins regulate responses to microbial and damage-associated products. Class II transactivator (CIITA) has a distinct function as the master regulator of class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC-II) transcription. Recently, human NLRC5 was found to regulate MHC-I in cell lines; however, a host of conflicting positive and negative functions has been attributed to this protein. To address the function of NLRC5 in a physiologic setting, we generated an Nlrc5(-/-) strain that contains a deletion in the exon that encodes the nucleotide-binding domain. We have not detected a role for this protein in cytokine induction by pathogen-associated molecular patterns and viruses. However, Nlrc5(-/-) cells showed a dramatic decrease of classical (H-2K) and nonclassical (Tla) MHC-I expression by T/B lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, and myeloid-monocytic lineages. As a comparison, CIITA did not affect mouse MHC-I expression. Nlrc5(-/-) splenocytes and bone marrow-derived macrophages were able to up-regulate MHC-I in response to IFN-γ; however, the absolute levels of MHC-I expression were significantly lower than WT controls. Chromatin immunoprecipitation of IFN-γ-treated cells indicates that Nlrc5 reduced the silencing H3K27me3 histone modification, but did not affect the activating AcH3 modification on a MHC-I promoter. In summary, we conclude that Nlrc5 is important in the regulation of MHC-I expression by reducing H3K27me3 on MHC-I promoter and joins CIITA as an NLR subfamily that controls MHC gene transcription.

A Metabolomic Signature of Glucagon Action in Healthy Individuals With Overweight/Obesity.

CONTEXT: Glucagon is produced and released from the pancreatic alpha-cell to regulate glucose levels during periods of fasting. The main target for glucagon action is the liver, where it activates gluconeogenesis and glycogen breakdown; however, glucagon is postulated to have other roles within the body. OBJECTIVE: We sought to identify the circulating metabolites that would serve as markers of glucagon action in humans. METHODS: In this study (NCT03139305), we performed a continuous 72-hour glucagon infusion in healthy individuals with overweight/obesity. Participants were randomized to receive glucagon 12.5 ng/kg/min (GCG 12.5), glucagon 25 ng/kg/min (GCG 25), or a placebo control. A comprehensive metabolomics analysis was then performed from plasma isolated at several time points during the infusion to identify markers of glucagon activity. RESULTS: Glucagon (GCG 12.5 and GCG 25) resulted in significant changes in the plasma metabolome as soon as 4 hours following infusion. Pathways involved in amino acid metabolism were among the most affected. Rapid and sustained reduction of a broad panel of amino acids was observed. Additionally, time-dependent changes in free fatty acids and diacylglycerol and triglyceride species were observed. CONCLUSION: These results define a distinct signature of glucagon action that is broader than the known changes in glucose levels. In particular, the robust changes in amino acid levels may prove useful to monitor changes induced by glucagon in the context of additional glucagon-like peptide-1 or gastric inhibitory polypeptide treatment, as these agents also elicit changes in glucose levels.

Hypoxic preconditioning protects against ischemic kidney injury through the IDO1/kynurenine pathway.

Prolonged cellular hypoxia leads to energetic failure and death. However, sublethal hypoxia can trigger an adaptive response called hypoxic preconditioning. While prolyl-hydroxylase (PHD) enzymes and hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) have been identified as key elements of oxygen-sensing machinery, the mechanisms by which hypoxic preconditioning protects against insults remain unclear. Here, we perform serum metabolomic profiling to assess alterations induced by two potent cytoprotective approaches, hypoxic preconditioning and pharmacologic PHD inhibition. We discover that both approaches increase serum kynurenine levels and enhance kynurenine biotransformation, leading to preservation of NAD+ in the post-ischemic kidney. Furthermore, we show that indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (Ido1) deficiency abolishes the systemic increase of kynurenine and the subsequent renoprotection generated by hypoxic preconditioning and PHD inhibition. Importantly, exogenous administration of kynurenine restores the hypoxic preconditioning in the context of Ido1 deficiency. Collectively, our findings demonstrate a critical role of the IDO1-kynurenine axis in mediating hypoxic preconditioning.

Significant alteration of liver metabolites by AAV8.Urocortin 2 gene transfer in mice with insulin resistance.

INTRODUCTION: Urocortin 2 (Ucn2) is a 38-amino acid peptide of the corticotropin-releasing factor family. Intravenous (IV) delivery of an adeno-associated virus vector serotype 8 encoding Ucn2 (AAV8.Ucn2) increases insulin sensitivity and glucose disposal in mice with insulin resistance. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of Ucn2 on liver metabolome. METHODS: Six-week-old C57BL6 mice were divided into normal chow (CHOW)-fed and high fat diet (HFD)-fed groups. The animals received saline, AAV8 encoding no gene (AAV8.Empt) or AAV8.Ucn2 (2x1013 genome copy/kg, IV injection). Livers were isolated from CHOW-fed and HFD-fed mice and analyzed by untargeted metabolomics. Group differences were statistically analyzed. RESULTS: In CHOW-fed mice, AAV8.Ucn2 gene transfer (vs. saline) altered the metabolites in glycolysis, pentose phosphate, glycogen synthesis, glycogenolysis, and choline-folate-methionine signaling pathways. In addition, AAV8.Ucn2 gene transfer increased amino acids and peptides, which were associated with reduced protein synthesis. In insulin resistant (HFD-induced) mice, HFD (vs CHOW) altered 448 (112 increased and 336 decreased) metabolites and AAV8.Ucn2 altered 239 metabolites (124 increased and 115 reduced) in multiple pathways. There are 61 metabolites in 5 super pathways showed interactions between diet and AAV8.Ucn2 treatment. Among them, AAV8.Ucn2 gene transfer reversed HFD effects on 13 metabolites. Finally, plasma Ucn2 effects were determined using a 3-group comparison of HFD-fed mice that received AAV8.Ucn2, AAV.Empt or saline, where 18 metabolites that altered by HFD (15 increased and 3 decreased), but restored levels to that seen in CHOW-fed mice by increased plasma Ucn2. CONCLUSIONS: Metabolomics study revealed that AAV8.Ucn2 gene transfer, through increased plasma Ucn2, provided counter-HFD effects in restoring hepatic metabolites to normal levels, which could be the underlying mechanisms for Ucn2 effects on increasing glucose disposal and reducing insulin assistance.

The Inhibitory Innate Immune Sensor NLRP12 Maintains a Threshold against Obesity by Regulating Gut Microbiota Homeostasis.

In addition to high-fat diet (HFD) and inactivity, inflammation and microbiota composition contribute to obesity. Inhibitory immune receptors, such as NLRP12, dampen inflammation and are important for resolving inflammation, but their role in obesity is unknown. We show that obesity in humans correlates with reduced expression of adipose tissue NLRP12. Similarly, Nlrp12-/- mice show increased weight gain, adipose deposition, blood glucose, NF-κB/MAPK activation, and M1-macrophage polarization. Additionally, NLRP12 is required to mitigate HFD-induced inflammasome activation. Co-housing with wild-type animals, antibiotic treatment, or germ-free condition was sufficient to restrain inflammation, obesity, and insulin tolerance in Nlrp12-/- mice, implicating the microbiota. HFD-fed Nlrp12-/- mice display dysbiosis marked by increased obesity-associated Erysipelotrichaceae, but reduced Lachnospiraceae family and the associated enzymes required for short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) synthesis. Lachnospiraceae or SCFA administration attenuates obesity, inflammation, and dysbiosis. These findings reveal that Nlrp12 reduces HFD-induced obesity by maintaining beneficial microbiota.

Construction and immunological characterization of CD40L or GM-CSF incorporated Hantaan virus like particle.

Infection of Hantaan virus (HTNV) usually causes hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). China has the worst epidemic incidence of HFRS as well as high fatality. Inactivated whole virus has been used for HFRS vaccination, however there are still problems such as safety concerns. CD40 ligand (CD40L) and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) are well-known immune stimulating molecules that can enhance antigen presenting, lymphocytes activation and maturation, incorporation of CD40L and GM-CSF to the surface of virus like particles (VLPs) can greatly improve the vaccination effect. We constructed eukaryotic vectors expressing HTNV M segment and S segment, as well as vectors expressing HTNV M segment with CD40L or GM-CSF, our results showed successful production of CD40L or GM-CSF incorporated HTNV VLPs. In vitro stimulation with CD40L or GM-CSF anchored HTNV VLP showed enhanced activation of macrophages and DCs. CD40L/GM-CSF incorporated VLP can induce higher level of HTNV specific antibody and neutralizing antibody in mice. Immunized mice splenocytes showed higher ability of secreting IFN-γ and IL-2, as well as enhancing CTL activity. These results suggest CD40L/GM-CSF incorporated VLP can serve as prospective vaccine candidate.

The Innate Immune Receptor NLRX1 Functions as a Tumor Suppressor by Reducing Colon Tumorigenesis and Key Tumor-Promoting Signals.

NOD-like receptor (NLR) proteins are intracellular innate immune sensors/receptors that regulate immunity. This work shows that NLRX1 serves as a tumor suppressor in colitis-associated cancer (CAC) and sporadic colon cancer by keeping key tumor promoting pathways in check. Nlrx1(-/-) mice were highly susceptible to CAC, showing increases in key cancer-promoting pathways including nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and interleukin 6 (IL-6). The tumor-suppressive function of NLRX1 originated primarily from the non-hematopoietic compartment. This prompted an analysis of NLRX1 function in the Apc(min/+) genetic model of sporadic gastrointestinal cancer. NLRX1 attenuated Apc(min/+) colon tumorigenesis, cellular proliferation, NF-κB, MAPK, STAT3 activation, and IL-6 levels. Application of anti-interleukin 6 receptor (IL6R) antibody therapy reduced tumor burden, increased survival, and reduced STAT3 activation in Nlrx1(-/-)Apc(min/+) mice. As an important clinical correlate, human colon cancer samples expressed lower levels of NLRX1 than healthy controls in multiple patient cohorts. These data implicate anti-IL6R as a potential personalized therapy for colon cancers with reduced NLRX1.

Expression profile of innate immune receptors, NLRs and AIM2, in human colorectal cancer: correlation with cancer stages and inflammasome components.

NLRs (nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat proteins or NOD-like receptors) are regulators of inflammation and immunity. A subgroup of NLRs and the innate immune receptor, AIM2 (absent-in-melanoma 2), can induce the assembly of a large caspase-1 activating complex called the inflammasome. Other NLRs regulate key signaling pathways such as NF-kB and MAPK. Since inflammation is a central component of colorectal cancer (CRC), this work was undertaken to analyze NLR and AIM2 expression in human CRC by combining bioinformatics analysis and experimental verification using clinical tissue samples. Additional experiments analyzed the association of (i) gene expression and cancer staging, and (ii) gene expression among inflammasome components.Ten public CRC datasets from the Oncomine® Platform were analyzed. Genes analyzed include NLRP1, NLRP3, NLRP6, NLRP12, NLRC3, NLRC4, NLRC5, NOD1, NOD2 and AIM2. Additionally, forty case-matched cancer samples and adjacent healthy control tissues isolated from a cohort of Chinese CRC patients were profiled.Three patterns of gene expression in CRC are shown. The expression of NLRC3, a checkpoint of inflammation, and the inflammasome components NLRP1, NLRP3, NLRC4 and AIM2 were reduced in CRC. NOD1 and NOD2 expression was increased in CRC, while NLRC5, NLRP6 and NLRP12 showed little difference compared to controls. Reduced expression of NLRC3 in CRC was verified in all available databases analyzed and confirmed with our patient cohort. Furthermore, the extent of NLRC3 and AIM2 gene reduction was correlated with cancer progression. This report reveals the potential value of NLR and AIM2 genes as biomarkers of CRC and cancer progression.

Inflammasome-independent role of AIM2 in suppressing colon tumorigenesis via DNA-PK and Akt.

The inflammasome activates caspase-1 and the release of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and IL-18, and several inflammasomes protect against intestinal inflammation and colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC) in animal models. The absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasome is activated by double-stranded DNA, and AIM2 expression is reduced in several types of cancer, but the mechanism by which AIM2 restricts tumor growth remains unclear. We found that Aim2-deficient mice had greater tumor load than Asc-deficient mice in the azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate (AOM/DSS) model of colorectal cancer. Tumor burden was also higher in Aim2(-/-)/Apc(Min/+) than in APC(Min/+) mice. The effects of AIM2 on CAC were independent of inflammasome activation and IL-1ß and were primarily mediated by a non-bone marrow source of AIM2. In resting cells, AIM2 physically interacted with and limited activation of DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), a PI3K-related family member that promotes Akt phosphorylation, whereas loss of AIM2 promoted DNA-PK-mediated Akt activation. AIM2 reduced Akt activation and tumor burden in colorectal cancer models, while an Akt inhibitor reduced tumor load in Aim2(-/-) mice. These findings suggest that Akt inhibitors could be used to treat AIM2-deficient human cancers.

Nonproteolytic roles of 19S ATPases in transcription of CIITApIV genes.

Accumulating evidence shows the 26S proteasome is involved in the regulation of gene expression. We and others have demonstrated that proteasome components bind to sites of gene transcription, regulate covalent modifications to histones, and are involved in the assembly of activator complexes in mammalian cells. The mechanisms by which the proteasome influences transcription remain unclear, although prior observations suggest both proteolytic and non-proteolytic activities. Here, we define novel, non-proteolytic, roles for each of the three 19S heterodimers, represented by the 19S ATPases Sug1, S7, and S6a, in mammalian gene expression using the inflammatory gene CIITApIV. These 19S ATPases are recruited to induced CIITApIV promoters and also associate with CIITA coding regions. Additionally, these ATPases interact with elongation factor PTEFb complex members CDK9 and Hexim-1 and with Ser5 phosphorylated RNA Pol II. Both the generation of transcripts from CIITApIV and efficient recruitment of RNA Pol II to CIITApIV are negatively impacted by siRNA mediated knockdown of these 19S ATPases. Together, these results define novel roles for 19S ATPases in mammalian gene expression and indicate roles for these ATPases in promoting transcription processes.

ChIP and Re-ChIP assays: investigating interactions between regulatory proteins, histone modifications, and the DNA sequences to which they bind.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays were developed in order to comprehensively describe physiological interactions between DNA sequences, transcriptional regulators, and the modification status of associated chromatin. In ChIP assays, living cells are treated with chemical cross-linkers to covalently bind proteins to each other and to their DNA targets. Once cross-linked to associated proteins, chromatin is extracted and fragmented by sonication and protein-DNA complexes are isolated using specific antibodies against a target protein. The cross-links that bind proteins to DNA are then reversed, and purified DNA fragments are analyzed by qPCR to determine if a specific sequence is present. As DNA regulatory elements frequently rely on the interaction of multiple transcription factors and cofactors to regulate gene expression, Re-ChIP methods were developed to allow for the identification of multiple (concurrently binding) proteins on a single DNA sequence. Re-ChIP assays have enabled the analysis of multiple, simultaneous, posttranslational modifications to histones in order to determine the combinatorial pattern of modifications associated with transcriptional status of a gene. Together, ChIP and Re-ChIP have contributed to the elucidation of the epigenetic code-regulating gene expression and have enhanced our understanding of physiological binding of proteins to DNA targets. The protocols that follow describe general strategies used to perform ChIP and Re-ChIP assays for the study of specific protein-DNA interactions.

Dysregulated recruitment of the histone methyltransferase EZH2 to the class II transactivator (CIITA) promoter IV in breast cancer cells.

One mechanism frequently utilized by tumor cells to escape immune system recognition and elimination is suppression of cell surface expression of Major Histocompatibility Class II (MHC II) molecules. Expression of MHC II is regulated primarily at the level of transcription by the Class II Transactivator, CIITA, and decreased CIITA expression is observed in multiple tumor types. We investigate here contributions of epigenetic modifications to transcriptional silencing of CIITA in variants of the human breast cancer cell line MDA MB 435. Significant increases in histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation upon IFN-γ stimulation correlate with reductions in transcription factor recruitment to the interferon-γ inducible CIITA promoter, CIITApIV, and with significantly increased CIITApIV occupancy by the histone methyltransferase enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2). Most compelling is evidence that decreased expression of EZH2 in MDA MB 435 variants results in significant increases in CIITA and HLA-DRA mRNA expression, even in the absence of interferon-γ stimulation, as well as increased cell surface expression of MHC II. Together, these data add mechanistic insight to prior observations of increased EZH2 expression and decreased CIITA expression in multiple tumor types.

Early epigenetic events regulate the adaptive immune response gene CIITA.

Precise regulation of Major Histocompatibility class II (MHC II) genes plays important roles in initiation, propagation and termination of adaptive immune responses by controlling antigen presentation to CD4+ T cells. MHC II genes are constitutively expressed in only a few cell types and are inducibly expressed by the inflammatory response cytokine interferon gamma (IFNγ) in all nucleated cells. The regulation of MHC II is tightly controlled by a Master Regulator, the class II transactivator (CIITA), which is a general regulator of both constitutive and inducible MHC II expression. Although much is known about the transcription factors necessary for CIITA expression, less is known about the epigenetic modifications and the requisite enzymes needed to provide these transcription factors access to DNA. We show here that multiple epigenetic changes occur at the IFNγ inducible CIITA promoter within 20' of IFNγ stimulation and that these changes correlate with the opening of the promoter and the initiation of transcription. Our study links these rapidly occurring epigenetic events at the inducible CIITA promoter to decreased promoter binding of the histone methyltransferase EZH2, and shows that decreased promoter binding of EZH2 transforms this previously tightly regulated and cytokine inducible promoter into a constitutively active and dysregulated gene.

The 19S ATPase S6a (S6'/TBP1) regulates the transcription initiation of class II transactivator.

Class II transactivator (CIITA) is the master regulator of the major histocompatibility class II transcription complex (MHC-II) and is critical for initiation of adaptive immune responses. We have previously demonstrated that the 19S proteasome ATPase Sug1 plays a significant role in regulating CIITA activity and MHC-II expression. We now show that an additional component of the 19S complex, the 19S ATPase S6a (S6'/Tat-binding protein 1), is crucial for regulating cytokine-inducible transcription of CIITA. Lack of S6a negatively impacts CIITA activity and CIITA expression. Decreased expression of S6a significantly diminishes the recruitment of transcription factors to the CIITA interferon-gamma-inducible promoter [CIITA promoter IV (pIV)] and significantly decreases CIITApIV histone H3 and histone H4 acetylation, with a preferential loss of acetylation at H3 lysine 18 and H4 lysine 8. In addition, we provide evidence for the involvement of the 19S AAA (ATPases associated with diverse cellular activity) ATPase hexamer as the 19S ATPase S6b binds CIITApIV in an S6a-dependent fashion and has effects similar to S6a on CIITApIV histone acetylation. These analyses demonstrate the importance of 19S ATPases in the assembly of CIITApIV transcription machinery and provide additional insight into the regulatory mechanisms of the 19S proteasome in mammalian transcription.