Serum testosterone, sperm quality, cytological, physicochemical and biochemical characteristics of the prostatic fraction of dogs with prostatomegaly.

Prostatomegaly is a common finding in older non-neutered dogs. This study compared the serum testosterone, sperm quality and characteristics of the prostatic fraction between healthy dogs and dogs with prostatomegaly. Blood samples of ten dogs (five dogs from each group) were taken for serum testosterone measurement. Sperm motility, vigour, concentration, viability, membrane functionality and morphology were analysed in sperm-rich fraction. Osmolality, pH, cell types, and albumin, haemoglobin, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and chloride were analysed in prostatic fraction. Dogs with prostatomegaly have the lowest sperm motility, vigour, concentration and functional membrane. Dogs with prostatomegaly have the highest glucose, triglycerides and cholesterol. Glucose was the only constituent positively correlated with serum testosterone and prostate volume. It can be concluded that dogs with prostatomegaly have poorer sperm quality, and glucose, triglycerides and cholesterol in prostatic fraction can be used as prostatomegaly biomarkers.

Different associations of cryoprotectants for testicular tissue of prepubertal cats submitted to vitrification.

The cryopreservation of testicular tissue is presented as the only alternative for the preservation of genetic material from prepubertal animals. However, this biotechnology is still being tested. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of different associations of cryoprotectants and the potential of cell proliferation after vitrification of testicular tissue of prepubertal cats. Five testicular pairs from five prepubertal cats were used, and each pair was divided into four fragments. Of these, one fragment composed of the control group (CG) and the rest were distributed in experimental groups according to the associations of cryoprotectants to be tested (dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO)/glycerol (GLY); ethylene glycol (EG)/GLY) or DMSO/EG) in a final cryoprotectant concentration of 5.6 m. The fragments were submitted to vitrification, and after one week, fragments were heated and processed for histomorphological evaluation and quantification of nucleolar organizer regions (NORs). DMSO/GLY did not differ from CG and was superior to the other vitrified groups, as to cell separation and degree of shrinkage of the basal membrane. Concerning cell differentiation, visibility of the nucleus and nuclear condensation, all the vitrified groups were inferior to CG; however, DMSO/EG was inferior to DMSO/GLY and EG/GLY, which did not differ among themselves. CG was superior to all groups in quantification of NORs. DMSO/EG was inferior to all others, and there was no difference between DMSO/GLY and EG/GLY. The association DMSO/GLY presented the best preservation of tissue integrity and potential of cell proliferation after vitrification of the testicular tissue of prepubertal cats.

Two methods of vitrification followed by in vitro culture of the ovine ovary: evaluation of the follicular development and ovarian extracellular matrix.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of two vitrification techniques on the extra cellular matrix (ECM) and ovarian follicular development. The ovarian cortex was fragmented (9 mm(3)) and divided into six groups, viz. fresh control, cultured control, vitrified by the Ovarian Tissue Cryosystem (OTC) method, conventional solid surface vitrification (SSV) method, OTC/cultured and SSV/cultured. Follicles from all the fragments were analysed for morphology, development and viability. The ECM was evaluated based on the condition of collagen and reticular fibres and the immunolocalization of type I collagen and fibronectin. After 7 days of culture, the tissue vitrified by OTC revealed a higher percentage (p < 0.05) of morphologically normal (30.66%) and viable (60.00%) follicles when compared with those vitrified using the SSV technique (21.33% and 23.00%). In all the fragments cultured, regardless of the vitrification method, a significantly higher percentage of developing follicles was observed when compared with the non-cultured tissue. Analysis of the type I collagen showed increased immunostaining after the in vitro culture in the vitrified fragments. In conclusion, the OTC is better for preserving the follicular viability and morphology and maintaining the integrity of the extracellular matrix components of the ovine ovary.

The macro-eco-evolutionary interplay between dispersal, competition and landscape structure in generating biodiversity.

Theory links dispersal and diversity, predicting the highest diversity at intermediate dispersal levels. However, the modulation of this relationship by macro-eco-evolutionary mechanisms and competition within a landscape is still elusive. We examine the interplay between dispersal, competition and landscape structure in shaping biodiversity over 5 million years in a dynamic archipelago landscape. We model allopatric speciation, temperature niche, dispersal, competition, trait evolution and trade-offs between competitive and dispersal traits. Depending on dispersal abilities and their interaction with landscape structure, our archipelago exhibits two 'connectivity regimes', that foster speciation events among the same group of islands. Peaks of diversity (i.e. alpha, gamma and phylogenetic), occurred at intermediate dispersal; while competition shifted diversity peaks towards higher dispersal values for each connectivity regime. This shift demonstrates how competition can boost allopatric speciation events through the evolution of thermal specialists, ultimately limiting geographical ranges. Even in a simple landscape, multiple intermediate dispersal diversity relationships emerged, all shaped similarly and according to dispersal and competition strength. Our findings remain valid as dispersal- and competitive-related traits evolve and trade-off; potentially leaving identifiable biodiversity signatures, particularly when trade-offs are imposed. Overall, we scrutinize the convoluted relationships between dispersal, species interactions and landscape structure on macro-eco-evolutionary processes, with lasting imprints on biodiversity.This article is part of the theme issue 'Diversity-dependence of dispersal: interspecific interactions determine spatial dynamics'.

c-Fos expression after neonatal handling in social brain regions: Distinctive profile of RHA-rat schizophrenia model on a social preference test.

Neonatal handling (NH) is an environmental manipulation that induces long-lasting changes in behavioural, neuroendocrine, and neuroanatomical processes in rodents. We have previously reported that NH treatment increases social interaction preference in an animal model of schizophrenia-relevant features, the Roman high-avoidance (RHA) rats. The present study was aimed at evaluating whether the increase of social behaviour/preference due to NH treatment in RHA rats is associated with differences in c-Fos expression levels in some of the brain areas that integrate the "social brain". To this aim, we evaluated the performance of adult male rats from both Roman rat strains (RHA vs. RLA -Roman low-avoidance- rats), either untreated (control) or treated with NH (administered during the first 21 days of life) in a social interaction task. For the analyses of c-Fos activation untreated and NH-treated animals were divided into three different experimental conditions: undisturbed home cage controls (HC); rats exposed to the testing set-up context (CTX); and rats exposed to a social interaction (SI) test. It was found that, compared with their RLA counterparts, NH treatment increased social behaviour in RHA rats, and also specifically enhanced c-Fos expression in RHA rats tested for SI in some brain areas related to social behaviour, i.e. the infralimbic cortex (IL) and the medial posterodorsal amygdala (MePD) regions.

Low prepulse inhibition predicts lower social interaction, impaired spatial working memory, reference memory and cognitive flexibility in genetically heterogeneous rats.

The "Genetically Heterogeneous National Institutes of Health (NIHHS)" stock rat (hereafter HS) shows a wide phenotypic variation, as a result of having been derived from eight inbred rat strains. Thus, these rats may be a conceivable parallel model of a healthy human sample. In order to evaluate whether HS rats have face validity as an animal model of schizophrenia-relevant features, it should be demonstrated that they present behavioural traits that may model negative and cognitive symptoms of the disorder. Previous studies on HS rats have shown that prepulse inhibition (PPI, a measure of sensorimotor gating processes), which is impaired in schizophrenic patients, is correlated with their working memory performance. In this study, we evaluated whether low PPI in the HS stock rat predicts impairments of spatial working memory (SWM), spatial reference memory and cognitive flexibility in the Morris water maze (MWM) test, and we evaluated HS rats for social interaction (SI) in a social investigation task. HS rats were stratified into 2 different groups according to their PPI scores, i.e. low- and high-PPI. In the SI task, low-PPI rats showed decreased social behaviour compared to high-PPI rats. In addition, relative to high-PPI HS rats, the low-PPI group displayed poorer SWM performance, impaired cognitive flexibility (in a reversal task) and worsened long-term spatial memory. Such differential behaviours in social and cognitive paradigms provide evidence on the face validity of low-PPI HS rats as a model of negative-like and cognitive schizophrenia-relevant traits.

New vascular structure in broiler breast: breast-vessel.

Chickens intensively selected for accelerating growth rate and enhanced muscle mass has resulted in the occurrence of breast alterations with a negative consumers perception. Together with the already known breast abnormalities (White Striping, Wooden Breast and Spaghetti Meat) a new one has been described by the consumers as a "long and thin worm". For this reason, the aim of this work was to macroscopically and microscopically describe this structure in broiler breast. To this end, 2 different experiments were performed. In the first one, 4 broiler breasts from a supermarket were analysed. Thereafter, a second experiment was carried out on an experimental farm simulating field management conditions in order to confirm the results of the first experiment. To this end, 120 chickens were reared in an experimental farm up to 42 d. Breast samples were collected and analysed macroscopically and microscopically to assess the abnormality on the broiler breast. In both experiments, the results of the analysis showed the finding of tubular structures located on the surface of pectoralis major muscle compatible with arteries. So far, currently, this occurrence has not been described in the literature and we propose calling this new broiler breast feature as breast-vessel.

Kidney injury molecule-1 and urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase as biomarkers of acute kidney injury in cats.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the concentration of kidney injury molecule-1 and activity of urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase in cats with urethral obstruction and healthy cats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Blood and urine samples were collected from a group of 15 healthy cats (control group) and a group of 20 cats with urethral obstruction at presentation, and 24 hours and 7 days after unblocking the obstruction. The serum creatinine, urinary creatinine and urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase were measured by spectrophotometry and kidney injury molecule-1 by the sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: On presentation, cats with obstruction had serum creatinine concentration and urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase index higher than healthy cats (mean difference 544 µmol/L, 95% confidence intervals 222 to 865 µmol/L, and 0.0022 U/µmol-uCre, 0.00043 to 0.0039 U/µmol-uCre, respectively), urine creatinine concentration lower (mean difference 25,624 µmol/L, 17,329 to 33,919 µmol/L), and no significant difference in the kidney injury molecule-1/urinary creatinine ratio (mean difference 13 pg/µmol-uCre, -33 to 59 pg/µmol-uCre). In the group of cats with urinary obstruction, over time serum creatinine decreased, urine creatinine increased, urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase index did not change significantly, and kidney injury molecule-1/urinary creatinine ratio increased. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Cats with post-renal obstruction and potential intrinsic renal damage had higher urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase index than healthy cats at the time of presentation and showed increase in kidney injury molecule-1/urinary creatinine ratio over time.

α,ß-Amyrin prevents steatosis and insulin resistance in a high-fat diet-induced mouse model of NAFLD via the AMPK-mTORC1-SREBP1 signaling mechanism.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), characterized by hepatosteatosis and steatohepatitis, is intrinsically related to obesity. Our previous study reported on the anti-obese activity of α,ß-amyrin (AMY), a pentacyclic triterpene isolated from Protium heptaphyllum. This study investigated its ability to prevent fatty liver and the underlying mechanism using the mouse model of NAFLD. NAFLD was induced in male Swiss mice fed a high fat diet (HFD) for 15 weeks. The controls were fed a normal chow diet (ND). The mice were simultaneously treated with AMY at 10 and 20 mg/kg or fenofibrate at 50 mg/kg. Lipid levels along with metabolic and inflammatory parameters were assessed in liver and serum. The liver sections were histologically examined using H&E staining. RT-qPCR and western blotting assays were performed to analyze signaling mechanisms. Mice fed HFD developed severe hepatic steatosis with elevated triglycerides and lipid droplets compared with ND controls. This was associated with a decrease in AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity, an increase of mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling, and enhanced sterol regulatory element binding protein 1 (SREBP1) expression, which have roles in lipogenesis, inhibition of lipolysis, and inflammatory response. AMY treatment reversed these signaling activities and decreased the severity of hepatic steatosis and inflammatory response, evidenced by serum and liver parameters as well as histological findings. AMY-induced reduction in hepatic steatosis seemed to involve AMPK-mTORC1-SREBP1 signaling pathways, which supported its beneficial role in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.

Increased thin-spine density in frontal cortex pyramidal neurons in a genetic rat model of schizophrenia-relevant features.

The cellular mechanisms altered during brain wiring leading to cognitive disturbances in neurodevelopmental disorders remain unknown. We have previously reported altered cortical expression of neurodevelopmentally regulated synaptic markers in a genetic animal model of schizophrenia-relevant behavioral features, the Roman-High Avoidance rat strain (RHA-I). To further explore this phenotype, we looked at dendritic spines in cortical pyramidal neurons, as changes in spine density and morphology are one of the main processes taking place during adolescence. An HSV-viral vector carrying green fluorescent protein (GFP) was injected into the frontal cortex (FC) of a group of 11 RHA-I and 12 Roman-Low Avoidance (RLA-I) male rats. GFP labeled dendrites from pyramidal cells were 3D reconstructed and number and types of spines quantified. We observed an increased spine density in the RHA-I, corresponding to a larger fraction of immature thin spines, with no differences in stubby and mushroom spines. Glia cells, parvalbumin (PV) and somatostatin (SST) interneurons and surrounding perineuronal net (PNN) density are known to participate in FC and pyramidal neuron dendritic spine maturation. We determined by stereological-based quantification a significantly higher number of GFAP-positive astrocytes in the FC of the RHA-I strain, with no difference in microglia (Iba1-positive cells). The number of inhibitory PV, SST interneurons or PNN density, on the contrary, was unchanged. Results support our belief that the RHA-I strain presents a more immature FC, with some structural features like those observed during adolescence, adding construct validity to this strain as a genetic behavioral model of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Early deviations in performance, metabolic and immunological indicators affect stayability in rabbit females.

The main purpose of this study was to find several early factors affecting stayability in rabbit females. To reach this goal, 203 females were used from their first artificial insemination to their sixth parturition. Throughout that period, 48 traits were recorded, considered to be performance, metabolic and immunological indicators. These traits were initially recorded in females' first reproductive cycle. Later, removed females due to death or culling and those that were non-removed were identified. A first analysis was used to explore whether it was possible to classify females between those reaching and those not reaching up to the mean lifespan of a rabbit female (the fifth reproductive) cycle using information from the first reproductive cycle. The analysis results showed that 97% of the non-removed females were classified correctly, whereas only 60% of the removed females were classified as animals to be removed. The reason for this difference lies in the model's characteristics, which was designed using early traits and was able to classify only the cases in which females would be removed due to performance, metabolic or immunologic imbalances in their early lives. Our results suggest that the model defines the necessary conditions, but not the sufficient ones, for females to remain alive in the herd. The aim of a second analysis was to find out the main early differences between the non-removed and removed females. The live weights records taken in the first cycle indicated that the females removed in their first cycle were lighter, while those removed in their second cycle were heavier with longer stayability (-203 and +202 g on average, respectively; P < 0.05). Non-removed females showed higher glucose and lower beta-hydroxybutyrate concentrations in the first cycle than the removed females (+4.8 and -10.7%, respectively; P < 0.05). The average lymphocytes B counts in the first cycle were 22.7% higher in the non-removed females group (P < 0.05). The females removed in the first reproductive cycle presented a higher granulocytes/lymphocytes ratio in this cycle than those that at least reached the second cycle (4.81 v. 1.66; P < 0.001). Consequently, non-removed females at sixth parturition offered adequate body development and energy levels, less immunological stress and a more mature immune function in the first reproductive cycle. The females that deviated from this pattern were at higher risk of being removed from the herd.

How likely is Brazil to achieve its NDC commitments in the energy sector? A review on Brazilian low-carbon energy perspectives.

This paper offers perspectives on the development of low-carbon energy technology in Brazil, pinpointing changes that have occurred since our former publication in 2011. It takes a fresh approach in terms of how likely Brazil will achieve its Nationally Determined Contributions Commitments in the energy sector. Many countries have implemented national climate policies to accomplish their pledged NDC and contribute to the temperature objectives of the Paris Agreement on climate change. Based on official reports and databases of energy development projections in Brazil and the socioeconomic context, we discuss what can be expected for the future of the Brazilian energy sector, the probability of implementing selected technologies, and the prospects of reaching the NDC targets for 2025 and 2030. In addition, this paper provides an overview of the current stage of development of these technologies, main directions, and bottlenecks in Brazil. Analyses have shown that the Brazilian renewable matrix tends to remain significant, driven by the development of solar and mostly small hydroelectric power sources, as well as different types of biomass. In addition, the system will include the replacement of thermoelectric plants powered by diesel and fuel oil by natural gas plants. The prospects for Brazil's official energy plan for 2027 are aligned with the reference technology scenario, which represents the business as usual scenario. Despite this, low-carbon technologies could be implemented far beyond the NDC's goals, given the abundance of renewable natural resources in the country.

Effect of different housing systems (single and group penning) on the health and welfare of commercial female rabbits.

In recent decades, concern about rabbit welfare and sustainability has increased. The housing system is a very important factor for animal welfare. However, information about how different available housing types for female rabbits affect their health status is scarce, but this is an important factor for their welfare. Hence, the objective of this study was to evaluate the health status of female rabbits in five common housing systems: three different single-housing systems with distinct available surfaces and heights; a single-housing system with a platform; a collective system. Female rabbits in the collective and platform cages had greater cortisol concentrations in hair than those in the single-housing system with no platform. Haptoglobin concentrations and kit mortality rates during lactation were greater for the collective-cage female rabbits. The collective group had more culled females and more lesions than in the other groups. The main reasons for culling in all the groups were reproduction problems and presence of abscesses, and the collective group of females was the most affected. In conclusion, it appears that keeping females together in collective systems negatively affects their health status and welfare, while single-housing systems imply lower kit mortality rates during lactation and cortisol concentrations, and fewer lesions in female rabbits.

Comparative study of biorefinery processes for the valorization of fast-growing Paulownia wood.

In this work, valorization of Paulownia wood (PW) was proposed following several process configurations for biofuels and value-added compounds production. Firstly, autohydrolysis and ethanol-organosolv strategies were assessed separately for the fractionation of PW to enhance the enzymatic digestibility of cellulose. A third strategy focused on a sequential process (autohydrolysis and organosolv) was explored. Two temperatures were selected for the first stage of the combined process. High concentration of oligosaccharides (26.29 g/L) and high concentration of degradation products (17.21 g/L) were obtained at 210 and 230 °C, respectively. The solids obtained from both pretreatments were subjected to organosolv delignification (200 °C, 3 h and 50% ethanol) achieving delignification of 58 and 30% for the autohydrolyzed biomass at 210 °C and 230 °C, respectively. The combined process resulted in susceptible biomass able to produce 64 g/L of ethanol. Therefore, the strategies explored in this work open the possibility to build a refinery around Paulownia wood.

Long-term implications of feed energy source in different genetic types of reproductive rabbit females. II. Immunologic status.

Genetic selection and nutrition management have played a central role in the development of commercial rabbitry industry over the last few decades, being able to affect productive and immunological traits of the animals. However, the implication of different energy sources in animals from diverse genetic lines achieving such evolutionary success remains still unknown. Therefore, in this work, 203 female rabbits housed and bred in the same conditions were used from their first artificial insemination until their fifth weaning. The animals belonged to three different genetic types diverging greatly on breeding goals (H line, hyper-prolific (n=66); LP line, robust (n=67) and R line, selected for growth rate (n=67), and were assigned to two experimental diets, promoting major differences in energy source (cereal starch or animal fat)). The aims of this work were to: (1) characterize and describe blood leucocyte populations of three lines of rabbit does in different physiological stages during their reproductive period: first artificial insemination, first weaning, second parturition and fifth weaning; and (2) study the possible influence of two different experimental diets on the leucocyte populations in peripheral blood. Flow cytometry analyses were performed on blood samples taken from females at each different sampling stade. Lymphocyte populations at both weanings were characterized by significantly lower counts of total, CD5+ and CD8+ lymphocytes (-19.8, -21.7 and -44.6%; P<0.05), and higher counts of monocytes and granulocytes (+49.2 and +26.2%; P<0.05) than in the other stages. Females had higher blood counts of lymphocytes B, CD8+ and CD25+ and lower counts of CD4+ at first than at fifth weaning (+55.6, +85.8, +57.5, -14.5%; P<0.05). G/L ratio was higher at both weanings (P<0.05), and CD4+/CD8+ ratio increased progressively from the 1AI to the 5 W (P<0.001). Regarding the effect of genetic type in blood leucocyte counts, LP animals presented the highest counts for total, B, CD5+ and CD8+ lymphocytes (+16.7, +31.8, +24.5 and +38.7; P<0.05), but R rabbits showed the highest counts for monocytes and granulocytes (+25.3 and +27.6; P<0.05). The type of diet given during the reproductive life did not affect the leucocyte population counts. These results indicate that there are detectable variations in the leucocyte profile depending on the reproductive stage of the animal (parturition, weaning or none of them). Moreover, foundation for reproductive longevity criteria allows animals to be more capable of adapting to the challenges of the reproductive cycle from an immunological viewpoint.

Morphological characterization of ckd in cats: Insights of fibrogenesis to be recognized.

Renal fibrosis is characterized by glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis and its pathogenesis is associated with the activity of mesenchymal cells (fibroblasts), being essentially characterized by a process of excessive accumulation resulting from the deposition of extracellular matrix components. The aim of this study was to characterize the morphological presentation of chronic and fibrotic lesions in the glomerular, tubular, interstitial, and vascular compartments in feline CKD, as well as the possible participation of myofibroblasts in renal fibrotic processes in this species. Cat kidneys were collected and processed according to the conventional techniques for light microscopy, circular polarization, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy. Fibrotic alterations were present in all compartments analyzed. The main findings in the glomerular compartment were different degrees of glomerular sclerosis, synechia formation, Bowman's capsule calcification, in addition to glomerular basement membrane thickening and pericapsular fibrosis. The tubulointerstitial compartment had intense tubular degeneration and the immunostaining in tubular cells for mesenchymal cell markers demonstrated the possibility of mesenchymal epithelial transition and consequent involvement of myofibroblasts in the development of interstitial tubule damage. Infiltration of inflammatory cells, added to vessel thickening and fibrosis, demonstrated the severity and role of inflammation in the development and perpetuation of damage. Thus, we may conclude that fibrotic lesions play a relevant role in feline CKD and the mechanism of perpetuation of these lesions need further elucidation regarding the origin and participation of myofibroblasts and consequent mesenchymal epithelial transition in this species.

Genotypic characterization of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from rabbit lesions.

Since staphylococcal infections are the main pathological problem in rabbit does, the objective of this study was to characterize epidemiologically Staphylococcus aureus isolates from different lesion types in rabbits. Using 3 genetic markers (coagulase, staphylococcal protein A and clumping factor B genes), 22 different genotypes were identified among 301 isolates recovered from 259 rabbit does with 10 different kinds of chronic purulent lesions. These infected rabbits were obtained from 30 herds located in the Valencia province on the Spanish Mediterranean coast. The most frequent genotype was designated A1/II1/delta (coa/spa/clfB combination genotype) and represented 70.76% of the isolates. Although most genotypes were previously identified in other countries, novel types were also documented. No specificity between genotypes and nature of the pathologic process could be identified. After genetic comparison between strains from different origins, the results may suggest that rabbit, bovine and human S. aureus isolates are not clonally related, suggesting that specific host-dependent pathogenic factors may have evolved independently in these species. These differences indicate that a rational and effective strategy to control infections caused by rabbit-specific isolates may be advantageous.

Intraflagellar transport complex in Leishmania spp. In silico genome-wide screening and annotation of gene function.

Flagella are constructed and maintained through the highly conserved process of intraflagellar transport (IFT), which is a rapid movement of particles along the axonemal microtubules of cilia/flagella. Particles that are transported by IFT are composed of several protein subunits comprising two complexes (A and B), which are conserved among green algae, nematodes, and vertebrates. To determine whether or not homologues to members of the IFT complex proteins are conserved in Leishmania spp, we scanned genomes, transcriptomes and proteomes of Leishmania species in a search for putative IFT factors, which were then identified in silico, compared, cataloged, and characterized. Since a large proportion of newly identified genes in L. major remain unclassified, with many of these being potentially Leishmania- (or kinetoplastid-) specific, there is a need for detailed analyses of homologs/orthologs that could help us understand the functional assignment of these gene products. We used a combination of integrated bioinformatics tools in a pathogenomics approach to contribute to the annotation of Leishmania genomes, particularly regarding flagellar genes and their roles in pathogenesis. This resulted in the formal in silico identification of eight of these homologs in Leishmania (IFT subunits, 20, 27, 46, 52, 57, 88, 140, and 172), along with others (IFTs 71, 74/72, and 81), as well as sequence comparisons and structural predictions. IFT, an important flagellar pathway in Leishmania, begins to be revealed through screening of trypanosomatid genomes; this information could also be used to better understand fundamental processes in Leishmania, such as motility and pathogenesis.