Mortality Surveillance Methods to Identify and Characterize Deaths in Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance Network Sites.

Despite reductions over the past 2 decades, childhood mortality remains high in low- and middle-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. In these settings, children often die at home, without contact with the health system, and are neither accounted for, nor attributed with a cause of death. In addition, when cause of death determinations occur, they often use nonspecific methods. Consequently, findings from models currently utilized to build national and global estimates of causes of death are associated with substantial uncertainty. Higher-quality data would enable stakeholders to effectively target interventions for the leading causes of childhood mortality, a critical component to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals by eliminating preventable perinatal and childhood deaths. The Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) Network tracks the causes of under-5 mortality and stillbirths at sites in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia through comprehensive mortality surveillance, utilizing minimally invasive tissue sampling (MITS), postmortem laboratory and pathology testing, verbal autopsy, and clinical and demographic data. CHAMPS sites have established facility- and community-based mortality notification systems, which aim to report potentially eligible deaths, defined as under-5 deaths and stillbirths within a defined catchment area, within 24-36 hours so that MITS can be conducted quickly after death. Where MITS has been conducted, a final cause of death is determined by an expert review panel. Data on cause of death will be provided to local, national, and global stakeholders to inform strategies to reduce perinatal and childhood mortality in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

Implementation of a Legionella Ordinance for Multifamily Housing, Garland, Texas.

CONTEXT: The incidence of legionellosis has sharply increased in the United States as a result of contaminated water systems. Jurisdictions across the country are considering whether to develop and implement regulations to protect individuals against Legionnaires' disease with its associated high morbidity and mortality. OBJECTIVE: This article sheds light on the implementation and effectiveness of a 2005 citywide Legionella testing mandate of multifamily housing cooling towers in Garland, Texas. This ordinance has been in place for more than 10 years and represents the first of its kind in the United States to mandate routine testing of cooling towers for Legionella in multifamily housing. DESIGN, SETTING, AND POPULATION: We utilized a mix of both qualitative and quantitative methods to explore the development, adoption, and implementation of the ordinance. Phone interviews were conducted with individuals from the City of Garland Health Department and apartment managers. Quantitative data included public health surveillance data on legionellosis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Barriers and facilitators of implementation, number and percentage of cooling towers from multifamily housing units that tested positive for Legionella by year, and number of legionellosis cases by year in Garland, Texas. RESULTS: Study outcomes highlight key themes that facilitated the successful implementation of the Legionella testing mandate, including the importance of timing, leadership support, stakeholder engagement, and education and outreach. The number of contaminated cooling towers was reduced over time. CONCLUSION: Mandatory monitoring for legionella in a local jurisdiction may result in reduced risk of legionellosis from cooling towers through raising awareness and education of building owners and managers about the need to prevent, detect, and remediate legionella contamination in their building water systems. Garland, Texas, broke new ground in the United States in moving toward primary prevention of legionellosis. The ordinance may be useful both in serving to educate and increase awareness about the need for Legionella prevention and to monitor effectiveness of maintenance procedures.

Legionellosis on the Rise: A Review of Guidelines for Prevention in the United States.

CONTEXT: Reported cases of legionellosis more than tripled between 2001 and 2012 in the United States. The disease results primarily from exposure to aerosolized water contaminated with Legionella. OBJECTIVE: To identify and describe policies and guidelines for the primary prevention of legionellosis in the US. DESIGN: An Internet search for Legionella prevention guidelines in the United States at the federal and state levels was conducted from March to June 2012. Local government agency guidelines and guidelines from professional organizations that were identified in the initial search were also included. SETTING: Federal, state, and local governing bodies and professional organizations. RESULTS: Guidelines and regulations for the primary prevention of legionellosis (ie, Legionnaires' disease and Pontiac fever) have been developed by various public health and other government agencies at the federal, state, and local levels as well as by professional organizations. These guidelines are similar in recommending maintenance of building water systems; federal and other guidelines differ in the population/institutions targeted, the extent of technical detail, and support of monitoring water systems for levels of Legionella contamination. CONCLUSIONS: Legionellosis deserves a higher public health priority for research and policy development. Guidance across public health agencies for the primary prevention of legionellosis requires strengthening as this disease escalates in importance as a cause of severe morbidity and mortality. We recommend a formal and comprehensive review of national public health guidelines for prevention of legionellosis.

Benefits and challenges of consolidating public health functions into a National Public Health Institute: a policy analysis.

National Public Health Institutes (NPHIs) around the world vary in composition. Consolidated organizational models can bring together critical functions such as disease surveillance, emergency preparedness and response, public health research, workforce development and laboratory diagnosis within a single focal point. This can lead to enhanced coordination and management of resources and enable more efficient and effective public health operations. We explored stakeholders' perceptions about the benefits and challenges of consolidating public health functions in an NPHI in seven countries where the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has supported NPHI establishment and strengthening. From August 2019 through January 2020, we interviewed a total of 96 stakeholders, including NPHI staff (N = 43), non-NPHI government staff (N = 29) and non-governmental and international organization staff (N = 24) in Cambodia, Colombia, Liberia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda and Zambia. We conducted a policy analysis using Tea Collins's health policy analysis framework to assess various possible options for coordinating public health functions and their likely effectiveness. The findings can be used by policymakers as they consider public health infrastructure. We found that consolidating functions in an NPHI, to the extent politically and organizationally feasible, promotes efficiency, flexibility and coordination, as well as supports data-driven health recommendations to government decision makers. Countries pursuing NPHI establishment can weigh the potential challenges and benefits of consolidating functions when determining which public health functions will comprise the NPHI, including clarity of role, access to resources, influence over decisions and political viability.

Lessons learned from the 2007 to 2009 Haemophilus influenzae type B vaccine shortage: implications for future vaccine shortages and public health preparedness.

OBJECTIVE: To understand immunization programs' experience managing the 2007 to 2009 Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) vaccine shortage and identify ways in which the US immunization system can be improved to assist in responses to future shortages of routine vaccines and large-scale public health emergencies. METHODS: An Internet-based survey was conducted from July 2009 to October 2009 among the 64 city, state, and territorial immunization program managers (IPMs). RESULTS: Fifty-eight percent (37 of the 64) of IPMs responded. Forty percent of responding IPMs indicated not having enough Hib vaccine within their Vaccines for Children program to fulfill the temporary 3-dose recommendation issued in December 2007 in response to the Hib vaccine shortage. While 73% of IPMs indicated success in monitoring provider inventory and 68% indicated success in monitoring doses administered during the shortage, fewer than half indicated success in monitoring providers' compliance with shortage-specific recommendations regarding Hib vaccine. Forty-six percent of IPMs used their immunization information system (IIS) to monitor provider compliance with recommendations regarding Hib vaccine use, and of these, nearly 60% reported success in monitoring provider compliance with recommendations compared with 35% of IPMs who did not use their IIS in this way. Forty-two percent of IPMs felt that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) was successful in determining stockpiled vaccine allocations to their program, and 56% felt that the CDC was successful in communicating its rationale for their immunization program's Hib allocation during the shortage. CONCLUSIONS: Experiences from the 2007 to 2009 Hib vaccine shortage offer insights on how the US immunization system and system-wide response to vaccine shortages can be improved. Results from this survey suggest that improving vaccine transfer between jurisdictions and using IIS to track provider compliance with shortage recommendations are 2 ways that can help the US immunization system respond to future vaccine shortages and large-scale public health emergencies like influenza pandemics.

Prioritizing Health Care Strategies to Reduce Childhood Mortality.

Importance: Although child mortality trends have decreased worldwide, deaths among children younger than 5 years of age remain high and disproportionately circumscribed to sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. Tailored and innovative approaches are needed to increase access, coverage, and quality of child health care services to reduce mortality, but an understanding of health system deficiencies that may have the greatest impact on mortality among children younger than 5 years is lacking. Objective: To investigate which health care and public health improvements could have prevented the most stillbirths and deaths in children younger than 5 years using data from the Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) network. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study used longitudinal, population-based, and mortality surveillance data collected by CHAMPS to understand preventable causes of death. Overall, 3390 eligible deaths across all 7 CHAMPS sites (Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, and South Africa) between December 9, 2016, and December 31, 2021 (1190 stillbirths, 1340 neonatal deaths, 860 infant and child deaths), were included. Deaths were investigated using minimally invasive tissue sampling (MITS), a postmortem approach using biopsy needles for sampling key organs and fluids. Main Outcomes and Measures: For each death, an expert multidisciplinary panel reviewed case data to determine the plausible pathway and causes of death. If the death was deemed preventable, the panel identified which of 10 predetermined health system gaps could have prevented the death. The health system improvements that could have prevented the most deaths were evaluated for each age group: stillbirths, neonatal deaths (aged <28 days), and infant and child deaths (aged 1 month to <5 years). Results: Of 3390 deaths, 1505 (44.4%) were female and 1880 (55.5%) were male; sex was not recorded for 5 deaths. Of all deaths, 3045 (89.8%) occurred in a healthcare facility and 344 (11.9%) in the community. Overall, 2607 (76.9%) were deemed potentially preventable: 883 of 1190 stillbirths (74.2%), 1010 of 1340 neonatal deaths (75.4%), and 714 of 860 infant and child deaths (83.0%). Recommended measures to prevent deaths were improvements in antenatal and obstetric care (recommended for 588 of 1190 stillbirths [49.4%], 496 of 1340 neonatal deaths [37.0%]), clinical management and quality of care (stillbirths, 280 [23.5%]; neonates, 498 [37.2%]; infants and children, 393 of 860 [45.7%]), health-seeking behavior (infants and children, 237 [27.6%]), and health education (infants and children, 262 [30.5%]). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study, interventions prioritizing antenatal, intrapartum, and postnatal care could have prevented the most deaths among children younger than 5 years because 75% of deaths among children younger than 5 were stillbirths and neonatal deaths. Measures to reduce mortality in this population should prioritize improving existing systems, such as better access to antenatal care, implementation of standardized clinical protocols, and public education campaigns.

African National Public Health Institutes Responses to COVID-19: Innovations, Systems Changes, and Challenges.

National public health institutes (NPHIs)-science-based governmental agencies typically part of, or closely aligned with, ministries of health-have played a critical part in many countries' responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. Through listening sessions with NPHI leadership, we captured the experiences of NPHIs in Africa. Our research was further supplemented by a review of the literature. To address issues related to COVID-19, NPHIs in Africa developed a variety of innovative approaches, such as working with the private sector to procure and manage vital supplies and address key information needs. Creative uses of technology, including virtual training and messaging from drones, contributed to sharing information and battling misinformation. Positive impacts of the pandemic response include increased laboratory capacity in many countries, modernized surveillance systems, and strengthened public-private partnerships; much of this enhanced capacity is expected to persist beyond the pandemic. However, several challenges remain, including the lack of staff trained in areas like bioinformatics (essential for genomic analysis) and the need for sustained relationships and data sharing between NPHIs and agencies not traditionally considered public health (eg, those related to border crossings), as well as the impact of the pandemic on prevention and control of non-COVID-19 conditions-both infectious and noncommunicable. Participants in the listening sessions also highlighted concerns about inequities in access to, and quality of, the public health services and clinical care with resultant disproportionate impact of the pandemic on certain populations. COVID-19 responses and challenges highlight the need for continued investment to strengthen NPHIs and public health infrastructure to address longstanding deficiencies and ensure preparedness for the next public health crisis.

National Public Health Institute Legal Framework: A Tool to Build Public Health Capacity.

As countries face public health emergencies, building public health capacity to prevent, detect, and respond to threats is a priority. In recent years, national public health institutes (NPHIs) have emerged to play a critical role in strengthening public health systems and to accelerate and achieve implementation of the International Health Regulations (IHR 2005). NPHIs are science-based government institutions that provide national leadership and expertise for the country's efforts to protect and improve health. Providing a Legal Framework for a National Public Health Institute is a recently released Africa CDC publication intended to support NPHI development throughout Africa. Here we present a legal mapping analysis of sampled legal domains for 5 countries, using the "Menu of Considerations for an NPHI Legal Framework." The analysis delineates the types of legal authorities countries may use to establish or enhance NPHIs and demonstrates how legal mapping can be used to review legal instruments for NPHIs. It also demonstrates variability among legal approaches countries take to establish and enable public health functions for NPHIs. This article examines how the legal framework and menu of considerations can help countries understand the nuances around creating and implementing the laws that will govern their organizations and how countries can better engage stakeholders to identify or address potential areas for opportunity where law may be used as a tool to strengthen public health infrastructure.

Seroepidemiologic and occupational risk survey for Coxiella burnetii antibodies among US veterinarians.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the occurrence of Q fever among veterinarians in the United States. In this study, we sought to estimate the prevalence of Coxiella burnetii antibodies among veterinarians and to identify risk factors for exposure. METHODS: We tested serum samples from 508 veterinarians who attended the 143rd American Veterinary Medical Association Annual Convention in 2006. Samples were screened using a Q fever IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Samples with positive or equivocal results of ELISA were confirmed using phase I and phase II IgG immunofluorescence antibody assays, and end point IgG titers were determined for samples with positive results. RESULTS: Antibodies against C. burnetii were detected in 113 (22.2%) of 508 veterinarians. Risk factors associated with seropositivity included age 46 years, routine contact with ponds, and treatment of cattle, swine, or wildlife. CONCLUSIONS: Veterinarians have a high level of exposure to C. burnetii, the causative organism of Q fever, especially those veterinarians who treat livestock. In this study, risk of C. burnetii seropositivity was also independently associated with contact with ponds. The role of exposure to standing bodies of water in infection is not usually considered and should be investigated in future studies. Additionally, the evidence of past infection with C. burnetii in >20% of veterinarians also highlights the need for use of appropriate personal protective equipment when treating animals that are potentially infected with C. burnetii. Physicians should consider the risk of infection with C. burnetii when treating ill veterinarians and others with potential occupational exposures.

Prevalence of and risk factors for serum antibodies against Leptospira serovars in US veterinarians.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the seroprevalence of antibodies against Leptospira serovars among veterinarians and identify risk factors for seropositivity in veterinary care settings. DESIGN: Seroepidemiologic survey. STUDY POPULATION: Veterinarians attending the 2006 AVMA Annual Convention. PROCEDURES: Blood samples were collected from 511 veterinarians, and serum was harvested for a microcapsule agglutination test (MAT) to detect antibodies against 6 serovars of Leptospira. Aggregate data analysis was performed to determine the ratio of the odds of a given exposure (eg, types of animals treated or biosafety practices) in seropositive individuals to the odds in seronegative individuals. RESULTS: Evidence of previous leptospiral infection was detected in 2.5% of veterinarians. Most veterinarians reported multiple potential exposures to Leptospira spp and other pathogens in the previous 12 months, including unintentional needlestick injuries (379/511 [74.2%]), animal bites (345/511 [67.5%]), and animal scratches (451/511 [88.3%]). Treatment of a dog with an influenza-like illness within the past year was associated with seropositivity for antibodies against Leptospira spp. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Veterinarians are at risk for leptospirosis and should take measures to decrease potential exposure to infectious agents in general. Diagnostic tests for leptospirosis should be considered when veterinarians have febrile illnesses of unknown origin.

Benefits and challenges of consolidating public health functions into a National Public Health Institute: a policy analysis

National Public Health Institutes (NPHIs) around the world vary in composition. Consolidated organizational models can bring together critical functions such as disease surveillance, emergency preparedness and response, public health research, workforce development and laboratory diagnosis within a single focal point. This can lead to enhanced coordination and management of resources and enable more efficient and effective public health operations. We explored stakeholders' perceptions about the benefits and challenges of consolidating public health functions in an NPHI in seven countries where the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has supported NPHI establishment and strengthening. From August 2019 through January 2020, we interviewed a total of 96 stakeholders, including NPHI staff (N = 43), non-NPHI government staff (N = 29) and non-governmental and international organization staff (N = 24) in Cambodia, Colombia, Liberia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda and Zambia. We conducted a policy analysis using Tea Collins's health policy analysis framework to assess various possible options for coordinating public health functions and their likely effectiveness. The findings can be used by policymakers as they consider public health infrastructure. We found that consolidating functions in an NPHI, to the extent politically and organizationally feasible, promotes efficiency, flexibility and coordination, as well as supports data-driven health recommendations to government decision makers. Countries pursuing NPHI establishment can weigh the potential challenges and benefits of consolidating functions when determining which public health functions will comprise the NPHI, including clarity of role, access to resources, influence over decisions and political viability.

West Nile virus among hospitalized, febrile patients: a case for expanding diagnostic testing.

In Georgia, most individuals reported with West Nile virus (WNV) disease have been diagnosed with West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND). Relatively few cases of West Nile Fever (WNF) are reported, and the burden of illness due to WNV is likely underestimated. From July through October 2003, WNV serologic testing was performed on enrolled patients>or=18 years of age with fever admitted to a large, urban hospital in Atlanta, Georgia through the emergency department (ED). Patients' history, clinical, and laboratory data were recorded. Residual blood drawn in the ED was tested to determine the presence of WNV IgG and IgM antibodies. Of 254 patients tested for WNV, four (1.6%) patients were positive for WNV IgM and IgG antibodies, and had a clinical illness compatible with WNV. None of the four positive patients were clinically suspected of having WNV infection; discharge diagnoses included pneumonia, migraine, stroke, and gout. These four patients accounted for 80% of all WNV diagnosed in this hospital, 44% of all cases in Fulton County, and 7% of all cases reported in Georgia in 2003. The occurrence of WNV disease may be substantially greater than currently reflected in disease statistics in Georgia and many other states. When indicators of WNV activity are present and patients are likely to have had intensive mosquito exposure, WNV should be considered in the differential diagnosis of seriously ill, febrile patients.

Business and public health collaboration for emergency preparedness in Georgia: a case study.

BACKGROUND: Governments may be overwhelmed by a large-scale public health emergency, such as a massive bioterrorist attack or natural disaster, requiring collaboration with businesses and other community partners to respond effectively. In Georgia, public health officials and members of the Business Executives for National Security have successfully collaborated to develop and test procedures for dispensing medications from the Strategic National Stockpile. Lessons learned from this collaboration should be useful to other public health and business leaders interested in developing similar partnerships. METHODS: The authors conducted a case study based on interviews with 26 government, business, and academic participants in this collaboration. RESULTS: The partnership is based on shared objectives to protect public health and assure community cohesion in the wake of a large-scale disaster, on the recognition that acting alone neither public health agencies nor businesses are likely to manage such a response successfully, and on the realization that business and community continuity are intertwined. The partnership has required participants to acknowledge and address multiple challenges, including differences in business and government cultures and operational constraints, such as concerns about the confidentiality of shared information, liability, and the limits of volunteerism. The partnership has been facilitated by a business model based on defining shared objectives, identifying mutual needs and vulnerabilities, developing carefully-defined projects, and evaluating proposed project methods through exercise testing. Through collaborative engagement in progressively more complex projects, increasing trust and understanding have enabled the partners to make significant progress in addressing these challenges. CONCLUSION: As a result of this partnership, essential relationships have been established, substantial private resources and capabilities have been engaged in government preparedness programs, and a model for collaborative, emergency mass dispensing of pharmaceuticals has been developed, tested, and slated for expansion. The lessons learned from this collaboration in Georgia should be considered by other government and business leaders seeking to develop similar partnerships.

Lack of Availability of Antenatal Vaccination Information on Obstetric Care Practice Web Sites.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the proportion of obstetric practice web sites in the United States providing information on antenatal influenza and tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccination. METHODS: Using www.healthgrades.com, a national random sample of 1,003 obstetric practice web sites was examined for provision of information on antenatal vaccination and other preventive prenatal health topics. Data were collected for this cross-sectional study between September 25, 2014, and November 12, 2014. χ tests and odds ratios were calculated to determine significance and magnitude of associations between provision of antenatal vaccination information and other practice characteristics. RESULTS: Of 1,003 web sites examined, 229 (22.8%) posted information pertaining to antenatal vaccinations. Only 105 web sites (10.5%) provided up-to-date information about both antenatal influenza and Tdap vaccination. Compared with the proportion posting on antenatal vaccination, significantly more web sites posted on safe foods (40.8%; P<.001), safe medications (36.9%; P<.001), and safe exercise (38.5%; P<.001) during pregnancy. When compared with web sites not mentioning these other prenatal health topics, web sites mentioning these topics were more likely to also mention antenatal vaccination (safe foods: 45.7% compared with 7.1%; odds ratio [OR] 11.07, 95% confidence interval [CI] 7.65-16.01; safe medications: 45.4% compared with 9.6%; OR 7.8, CI 5.58-10.89; safe exercise: 45.9% compared with 8.4%; OR 9.2, CI 6.5-13.03). CONCLUSION: A majority of obstetric care practice web sites do not provide information on antenatal vaccinations. Obstetric practices should consider using their web sites to provide reliable information on antenatal vaccinations as many already do for other prenatal health topics.

Impact of a multi-component antenatal vaccine promotion package on improving knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about influenza and Tdap vaccination during pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: Understanding whether interventions designed to improve antenatal vaccine uptake also change women's knowledge about vaccination is critical for improving vaccine coverage. This exploratory study evaluates the effectiveness of a multi-component influenza and tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine promotion package on improving women's knowledge, attitudes and beliefs toward antenatal vaccination. STUDY DESIGN: In 2012/2013 a cluster-randomized trial was conducted to test the effectiveness of a vaccine promotion package on improving antenatal vaccine coverage. Participants included 325 unvaccinated pregnant women from 11 obstetric practices in Georgia. Eleven health beliefs measures were assessed at baseline and 2-3 months post-partum. Outcomes were differences in proportions of women citing favorable responses to each measure between study groups at follow-up. RESULTS: Women enrolled in their third trimester had a higher probability of asking family members to vaccinate to protect the infant if they were in the intervention group versus the control group (36% vs. 22%; risk ratio [RR] = 1.65, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.21, 2.26). A similar association was not observed among women enrolled before their third trimester (39% vs. 44%; RR = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.50, 1.73). There were no other significant differences at follow-up between study groups. CONCLUSIONS: While exposure to the intervention package may have raised awareness that vaccinating close contacts can protect an infant, there is little evidence that the package changed women's attitudes and beliefs toward antenatal vaccination. Future research should ensure adequate exposure to the intervention and consider study design aspects including power to assess changes in secondary outcomes, discriminatory power of response options, and social desirability bias. This study is registered with clinicaltrials.gov, study ID NCT01761799.

Risk factors for Buruli ulcer disease (Mycobacterium ulcerans Infection): results from a case-control study in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Morbidity due to Buruli ulcer disease (BUD), a cutaneous infection caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans, has been increasingly recognized in rural West Africa. The source and mode of transmission remain unknown. METHODS: To identify BUD risk factors, we conducted a case-control study in 3 BUD-endemic districts in Ghana. We enrolled case patients with clinically diagnosed BUD and obtained skin biopsy specimens. M. ulcerans infection was confirmed by at least 1 of the following diagnostic methods: histopathologic analysis, culture, polymerase chain reaction, and Ziehl-Neelsen staining of a lesion smear. We compared characteristics of case patients with confirmed BUD with those of age- and community-matched control subjects using conditional logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Among 121 case patients with confirmed BUD, leg lesions (49%) or arm lesions (36%) were common. Male case patients were significantly more likely than female case patients to have lesions on the trunk (25% vs. 6%; P = .009). Multivariable modeling among 116 matched case-control pairs identified wading in a river as a risk factor for BUD (odds ratio [OR], 2.69; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.27-5.68; P = .0096). Wearing a shirt while farming (OR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.11-0.70; P = .0071), sharing indoor living space with livestock (OR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.15-0.86; P = .022), and bathing with toilet soap (OR, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.19-0.90; P = .026) appeared to be protective. BUD was not significantly associated with penetrating injuries (P = .14), insect bites near water bodies (P = .84), bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination (P = .33), or human immunodeficiency virus infection (P = .99). CONCLUSIONS: BUD is an environmentally acquired infection strongly associated with exposure to river areas. Exposed skin may facilitate transmission. Until transmission is better defined, control strategies in BUD-endemic areas could include covering exposed skin.

A Review of Guidelines for the Primary Prevention of Legionellosis in Long-Term Care Facilities.

Legionellosis is an important public health problem in the United States and other countries, and residents of long-term care facilities (LTCFs) are at higher risk for Legionnaires' disease than the general population. In this study, we reviewed published US and international guidelines for the primary prevention of legionellosis in LTCFs, including nursing homes, skilled nursing facilities, assisted living facilities, and aged care facilities. The results of this review indicate that most guidelines emphasize adequate design and maintenance of water systems and water temperatures; however, guidance regarding routine preventative environmental testing for Legionella bacteria is not uniform among various jurisdictions, and facilities are generally left without clear guidance on this issue. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention does not recommend such testing in LTCFs, in contrast to the Veterans Health Administration and Environmental Protection Agency. Internationally, the World Health Organization recommends routine environmental testing, as do Ireland; France; The Netherlands; South Africa; Vienna, Austria; and Queensland, Australia. Among domestic and international guidelines in favor of environmental testing, recommendations on the frequency of testing for Legionella in water systems vary. Further research to inform recommendations on the usefulness of routine environmental testing and other measures for the primary prevention of legionellosis in this setting is needed.

Factors Associated with Intention to Receive Influenza and Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Acellular Pertussis (Tdap) Vaccines during Pregnancy: A Focus on Vaccine Hesitancy and Perceptions of Disease Severity and Vaccine Safety.

BACKGROUND: Improving influenza and tetanus, diphtheria and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine coverage among pregnant women is needed. PURPOSE: To assess factors associated with intention to receive influenza and/or Tdap vaccinations during pregnancy with a focus on perceptions of influenza and pertussis disease severity and influenza vaccine safety. METHODS: Participants were 325 pregnant women in Georgia recruited from December 2012 - April 2013 who had not yet received a 2012/2013 influenza vaccine or a Tdap vaccine while pregnant. Women completed a survey assessing influenza vaccination history, likelihood of receiving antenatal influenza and/or Tdap vaccines, and knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about influenza, pertussis, and their associated vaccines. RESULTS: Seventy-three percent and 81% of women believed influenza and pertussis, respectively, would be serious during pregnancy while 87% and 92% believed influenza and pertussis, respectively, would be serious to their infants. Perception of pertussis severity for their infant was strongly associated with an intention to receive a Tdap vaccine before delivery (p=0.004). Despite perceptions of disease severity for themselves and their infants, only 34% and 44% intended to receive antenatal influenza and Tdap vaccines, respectively. Forty-six percent had low perceptions of safety regarding the influenza vaccine during pregnancy, and compared to women who perceived the influenza vaccine as safe, women who perceived the vaccine as unsafe were less likely to intend to receive antenatal influenza (48% vs. 20%; p < 0.001) or Tdap (53% vs. 33%; p < 0.001) vaccinations. CONCLUSIONS: Results from this baseline survey suggest that while pregnant women who remain unvaccinated against influenza within the first three months of the putative influenza season may be aware of the risks influenza and pertussis pose to themselves and their infants, many remain reluctant to receive influenza and Tdap vaccines antenatally. To improve vaccine uptake in the obstetric setting, our findings support development of evidence-based vaccine promotion interventions which emphasize vaccine safety during pregnancy and mention disease severity in infancy.

One-year health assessment of adult survivors of Bacillus anthracis infection.

CONTEXT: Little is known about potential long-term health effects of bioterrorism-related Bacillus anthracis infection. OBJECTIVE: To describe the relationship between anthrax infection and persistent somatic symptoms among adults surviving bioterrorism-related anthrax disease approximately 1 year after illness onset in 2001. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Cross-sectional study of 15 of 16 adult survivors from September through December 2002 using a clinical interview, a medical review-of-system questionnaire, 2 standardized self-administered questionnaires, and a review of available medical records. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Health complaints summarized by the body system affected and by symptom categories; psychological distress measured by the Revised 90-Item Symptom Checklist; and health-related quality-of-life indices by the Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (version 2). RESULTS: The anthrax survivors reported symptoms affecting multiple body systems, significantly greater overall psychological distress (P<.001), and significantly reduced health-related quality-of-life indices compared with US referent populations. Eight survivors (53%) had not returned to work since their infection. Comparing disease manifestations, inhalational survivors reported significantly lower overall physical health than cutaneous survivors (mean scores, 30 vs 41; P =.02). Available medical records could not explain the persisting health complaints. CONCLUSION: The anthrax survivors continued to report significant health problems and poor life adjustment 1 year after onset of bioterrorism-related anthrax disease.