Prognostic significance of early platelet dynamics in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia.

BACKGROUND: Platelets are recognized as key immune effectors, but they are targets of bacterial virulence factors. In the present study, we aimed to examine the relationship between early platelet dynamics and the outcome of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (SAB). METHOD: Electronic medical records of adult patients hospitalized for SAB between July 2012 and November 2020 were retrospectively reviewed for relevant demographic, laboratory, and clinical data. The outcome endpoints were mortality and microbial persistence. RESULTS: Among the 811 patients evaluated, 29% experienced thrombocytopenia on Day 1. Platelet count nadir occurred on Days 2-3 following SAB onset, and Day 4 was a determining point of platelet count trajectory and mortality. Mortality risk was 6% or less for those with normal platelet count by Day 4 regardless of whether they experienced thrombocytopenia on Day 1, but the risk increased to 16-21% for those who experienced thrombocytopenia on Day 4 regardless of whether they had normal platelet count on Day 1 or sustained thrombocytopenia. The duration of bacteremia was prolonged by one day (median 3 d vs. 2 d) for those with sustained thrombocytopenia compared to those without. CONCLUSION: Early platelet dynamics during SAB have prognostic significance and represent an early window for potential platelet-directed therapeutic interventions to improve outcome.

Cytokine measurements add value to clinical variables in predicting outcomes for Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia.

BACKGROUND: We demonstrated that an early dysregulated cytokine response [high interleukin-10 to tissue necrosis factor (IL-10/TNF) ratio] predicted poor outcomes in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (SAB). However, high interpatient variability in cytokine levels were observed. We grouped cytokine measurements in quartiles and assessed their additive value to clinical variables for predicting bacterial persistence and 30-day mortality in patients with SAB. METHODS: A multicenter observational study was conducted in hospitalized patients with SAB. Medical charts were reviewed for relevant information. Blood samples were obtained for cytokine measurements by ELISA: interferon-gamma (IFNγ), interleukin (IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-17) and tissue necrosis factor (TNF). Cytokine measurements were grouped into quartiles. Significant predictors for bacterial persistence and 30-day mortality were determined by multivariable logistic regression analysis. Area under the ROC curve (AUC) analysis was performed and predictive performance was compared between models with and without cytokine quartiles. RESULTS: Among 606 patients with SAB, a subset of patients (n = 239) had Day 1 cytokine measurements and clinical data collected; of those, 53 (22%) had persistent bacteremia. Accounting for septic shock, the addition of either IL-10 (AUC 0.708) or TNF (AUC 0.714) quartiles measured on Day 1 improved model performance for predicting bacterial persistence. All patients had Day 4 cytokine measurements; 52 patients (8.5%) died within 30-days of SAB onset. Inclusion of either IL-10 (AUC 0.873) or TNF (AUC 0.879) quartiles, but not both, measured on Day 4 to the significant clinical predictors (coronary artery disease, Pitt bacteremia score ≥ 4, and septic shock) improved model performance for mortality. CONCLUSIONS: IL-10 or TNF levels falling within the range in the upper quartiles, when combined with clinical variables, improved model performance for predicting outcomes, and may potentially be used to support aggressive management and biomarker-guided studies to evaluate the benefit of adjunctive immunotherapy for SAB in the future.

Factors associated with prompt recovery among hospitalised patients with coronavirus disease 2019.

BACKGROUND: Patients who survived hospitalisation for COVID-19 experienced varying durations of illness but the factors associated with prompt recovery are unknown. This study identifies factors differentiating hospitalised patients who recovered promptly versus survived a prolonged course of illness because of COVID-19. METHODS: This was a retrospective study from March-August 2020 of hospitalised adults with COVID-19 which were grouped based on time to recovery: short (≤3 days), intermediate (4-10 days) and prolonged (>10 days). Recovery was defined as resolution of fever, tachypnea, hypotension, extubation and return of mental status at baseline. Multivariate analysis was used to evaluate factors associated with prompt recovery. RESULTS: Among 508 patients hospitalised for COVID-19, 401 (79%) survived. Of those, prompt recovery (within 3 days) was achieved in 43% (174/401), whereas 23% (92/401) recovered after a prolonged period of >10 days. Overall, median age was 64 years with 73% admitted from home and 25% from a skilled nursing facility. Predictors for prompt recovery upon admission included female sex (OR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.1-2.7; P = .01), no fever (OR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.1-2.6; P = .03), longer time from symptom onset to hospitalisation (OR, 1.1; 95% CI, 1.0-1.1; P = .001), no supplemental oxygen (OR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.2-3.0; P = .004), no direct ICU admission (OR, 41.7; 95% CI, 2.4-740.4; P = .01) and absence of bacterial co-infections (OR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.5-4.0, P = .0003). CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides relevant data that could help clinicians triage competing resources in health systems that are challenged by the ebb and flow of COVID-19 cases by identifying clinical features of COVID-19 patients who may require less intensive management including avoidance of unnecessary antibacterial therapy.

Defining the Breakpoint Duration of Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia Predictive of Poor Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (SAB) is defined based on varying duration in literature. The primary objective was to determine the risk of poor outcomes in relation to bacteremia duration. METHODS: Multicenter, prospective, observational study of adult hospitalized patients with SAB. Medical records were reviewed for pertinent data. Patients were grouped by bacteremia duration: short (1-2 days), intermediate (3-6 days), and prolonged (≥7 days) and compared for risk factors and outcomes. RESULTS: Of 884 patients, 63% had short, 28% intermediate, and 9% prolonged bacteremia. Overall mean age was 57 years, and 70% were male. The prolonged group had the highest proportion of methicillin-resistant SAB (P < .0001). Choice of antibiotic therapy did not significantly affect bacteremia duration; however, time to source-control procedure was delayed in the prolonged and intermediate groups compared with the short group (3.5 vs 3 vs 1 day, P < .0001). Metastatic complications, length of stay, and 30-day mortality were progressively worse as bacteremia duration increased (P < .0001). Every continued day of bacteremia was associated with a relative risk of death of 1.16 (95% confidence interval, 1.10-1.22; P < .0001), with a significant increase in risk starting at 3 days as determined by receiver operating characteristic analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Optimal management of SAB should target bacterial clearance as soon as possible to minimize incremental risk of mortality with each day of positive blood culture. Delay in source control but not type of antistaphylococcal therapy was significantly associated with prolonged bacteremia and worse outcomes.

Therapeutic Monitoring of Vancomycin for Serious Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections: A Revised Consensus Guideline and Review by the American Society of Health-system Pharmacists, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists.

Recent clinical data on vancomycin pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics suggest a reevaluation of current dosing and monitoring recommendations. The previous 2009 vancomycin consensus guidelines recommend trough monitoring as a surrogate marker for the target area under the curve over 24 hours to minimum inhibitory concentration (AUC/MIC). However, recent data suggest that trough monitoring is associated with higher nephrotoxicity. This document is an executive summary of the new vancomycin consensus guidelines for vancomycin dosing and monitoring. It was developed by the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists vancomycin consensus guidelines committee. These consensus guidelines recommend an AUC/MIC ratio of 400-600 mg*hour/L (assuming a broth microdilution MIC of 1 mg/L) to achieve clinical efficacy and ensure safety for patients being treated for serious methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections.

Prevalence of the carbapenem-heteroresistant phenotype among ESBL-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates.

OBJECTIVES: Carbapenem-heteroresistant (cHR) Enterobacteriaceae strains have been reported worldwide; however, the prevalence among clinical ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae isolates obtained from patients with repeated hospital admissions remains largely unknown. METHODS: Heteroresistance was screened by disc diffusion and confirmed by a modified population analysis profiling (PAP) method against ertapenem, imipenem, meropenem and ceftolozane/tazobactam. MIC testing was performed by broth microdilution against carbapenems and a panel of agents with potential activity against ESBL-producing strains. RESULTS: One hundred and seventy-three ESBL-producing meropenem-susceptible Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates were selected for testing. A total of 519 bacteria/carbapenem combinations were screened by disc diffusion; 84 combinations were identified as cHR. Modified PAP confirmed 70 bacteria/carbapenem combinations as heteroresistant; most (63%, 44/70) confirmed cHR colonies grew within the ertapenem zone of inhibition, followed by imipenem (30%, 21/70), then meropenem (7%, 5/70). In total, one-third of the unique patient isolates (32%, 55/173) were identified as being heteroresistant to at least one carbapenem; of those patients, 16% (9/55) had a carbapenem-non-susceptible isolate on subsequent visits. Only two cHR isolates screened positive for ceftolozane/tazobactam heteroresistance (1%, 2/173), of which one was confirmed heteroresistant by modified PAP. cHR isolates were more likely to be collected from a non-urinary source (e.g. respiratory) compared with non-cHR isolates (31% versus 19%, P = 0.02). MIC distributions of all tested antibiotic agents did not differ between non-cHR and cHR isolates. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings raise concerns for the continued use of carbapenems as first-line therapy for ESBL infections and for the potential selection for strains with full carbapenem resistance.

Differential effects of antibiotics on neutrophils exposed to lipoteichoic acid derived from Staphylococcus aureus.

BACKGROUND: Persistent bacteremia occurs in at least 30% of patients with Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection (SAB) and may be attributable to a dysregulated host immune response. Neutrophils interact with a variety of S. aureus microbial factors, including lipoteichoic acid (LTA), to activate phagocytic function in a concentration-dependent manner. Antibiotics have been shown to exert both direct antimicrobial action as well as immunomodulatory effects. In this study, we compared the effects of different anti-staphylococcal antibiotics on LTA-mediated immune activation of neutrophils. METHODS: Neutrophils obtained from healthy volunteers were exposed to two levels of LTA (1 and 10 µg/ml) with or without addition of antibiotics from different pharmacologic classes (vancomycin, daptomycin, ceftaroline). Neutrophil function was assessed by examining phagocytic response, activation (CD11b, CD62L expression), Toll-like receptor-2 expression, cell survival and apoptosis, and CXCL8 release. RESULTS: Differential LTA-mediated antibiotic effects on neutrophil function were observed primarily at the high LTA exposure level. Ceftaroline in the presence of 10 µg/ml LTA had the most prominent effects on phagocytosis and CD11b and CD62L expression, with trends towards increased neutrophil survival and preservation of CXCL8 release when compared to daptomycin and vancomycin with the latter significantly dampening PMN CXCL8 release. CONCLUSIONS: Select antimicrobial agents, such as ceftaroline, exert immunostimulatory effects on neutrophils exposed to S. aureus LTA, which when confirmed in vivo, could be leveraged for its dual immunomodulatory and antibacterial actions for the treatment of persistent SAB mediated by a dysregulated host response.

Utility of qSOFA score in identifying patients at risk for poor outcome in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia.

BACKGROUND: The prognostic capability of the quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) bedside scoring tool is uncertain in non-ICU patients with sepsis due to bacteremia given the low number of patients previously evaluated. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of adult hospitalized patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (SAB). Medical charts were reviewed to determine qSOFA score, systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) criteria, and Pitt bacteremia score (PBS) at initial presentation; their predictive values were compared for ICU admission within 48 h, ICU stay duration > 72 h, and 30-day mortality. RESULTS: Four hundred twenty-two patients were included; 22% had qSOFA score ≥2. Overall, mean age was 56y and 75% were male. More patients with qSOFA ≥2 had altered mentation (23% vs 5%, p < 0.0001), were infected with MRSA (42% vs 30%, p = 0.03), had endocarditis or pneumonia (29% vs 15%, p = 0.0028), and bacterial persistence ≥4d (34% vs 20%, p = 0.0039) compared to qSOFA <2 patients. Predictive performance based on AUROC was better (p < 0.0001) with qSOFA than SIRS criteria for all three outcomes, but similar to PBS ≥2. qSOFA≥2 was the strongest predictor for poor outcome by multivariable analysis and showed improved specificity but lower sensitivity than SIRS ≥2. CONCLUSIONS: qSOFA is a simple 3-variable bedside tool for use at the time of sepsis presentation that is more specific than SIRS and simpler to calculate than PBS in identifying septic patients at high risk for poor outcomes later confirmed to have S. aureus bacteremia.

Performance of Ceftolozane-Tazobactam Etest, MIC Test Strips, and Disk Diffusion Compared to Reference Broth Microdilution for ß-Lactam-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolates.

The performance characteristics of the ceftolozane-tazobactam (C-T) Etest (bioMérieux, Marcy l'Etoile, France), MIC test strips (MTS; Liofilchem, Italy), and disk diffusion (Hardy, Santa Ana, CA) were evaluated for a collection of 308 beta-lactam-resistant isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa recovered from three institutions in Los Angeles, CA. Reference testing was performed by the reference broth microdilution (rBMD) method. MIC and disk results were interpreted using Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute breakpoints. Overall, 72.5% of the isolates were susceptible to C-T by rBMD. Etest and disk diffusion demonstrated acceptable performance, whereas MTS yielded a greater than acceptable percentage of minor errors. Categorical agreement was 96.8% for Etest, 87.0% for MTS, and 92.9% for disk diffusion. No very major errors were observed by any test, and no major errors (ME) were observed by Etest or disk diffusion. Two ME (0.9% of susceptible isolates) were observed by MTS. The incidence of minor errors was 3.2%, 12.3%, and 7.1% for Etest, MTS, and disk diffusion, respectively. Essential agreement (EA) for Etest was excellent, at 97.7%, whereas the MICs obtained by MTS tended to be 1 to 2 dilutions higher than those obtained by rBMD, with an EA of 87.0%.

Risk factors for early return visits to the emergency department in patients with urinary tract infection.

BACKGROUND: Optimal management of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in the emergency department (ED) is challenging due to high patient turnover, decreased continuity of care, and treatment decisions made in the absence of microbiologic data. We sought to identify risk factors for return visits in ED patients treated for UTI. METHODS: A random sample of 350 adult ED patients with UTI by ICD 9/10 codes was selected for review. Relevant data was extracted from medical charts and compared between patients with and without ED return visits within 30days (ERVs). RESULTS: We identified 51 patients (15%) with 59 ERVs, of whom 6% returned within 72h. Nearly half of ERVs (47%) were UTI-related and 33% of ERV patients required hospitalization. ERVs were significantly more likely (P<0.05) in patients with the following: age≥65years; pregnancy; skilled nursing facility residence; dementia; psychiatric disorder; obstructive uropathy; healthcare exposure; temperature≥38 °C heart rate>100; and bacteremia. Escherichia coli was the most common uropathogen (70%) and susceptibility rates to most oral antibiotics were below 80% in both groups except nitrofurantoin (99% susceptible). Cephalexin was the most frequently prescribed antibiotic (51% vs. 44%; P=0.32). Cephalexin bug-drug mismatches were more common in ERV patients (41% vs. 15%; P=0.02). Culture follow-up occurred less frequently in ERV patients (75% vs. 100%; P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: ERV in UTI patients may be minimized by using ED-source specific antibiogram data to guide empiric treatment decisions and by targeting at-risk patients for post-discharge follow-up.

Activity of Ceftolozane-Tazobactam and Ceftazidime-Avibactam against Beta-Lactam-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolates.

Ceftolozane-tazobactam (C/T) and ceftazidime-avibactam (CZA) MICs were evaluated for a collection of 309 beta-lactam-resistant isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa recovered from three institutions in the area of Los Angeles, CA. Overall, 12.0% of isolates were susceptible to imipenem, 15.9% were susceptible to meropenem, 20.7% were susceptible to piperacillin-tazobactam, 24.6% were susceptible to ceftazidime, 25.9% were susceptible to cefepime, 72.5% were susceptible to C/T, and 61.8% were susceptible to CZA. Among C/T-resistant isolates, 9.1% were CZA susceptible, whereas 36.4% of CZA-resistant isolates were susceptible to C/T.

A Dysregulated Balance of Proinflammatory and Anti-Inflammatory Host Cytokine Response Early During Therapy Predicts Persistence and Mortality in Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia.

OBJECTIVES: The contribution of individual immune response to Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia on outcome has not been well studied. The objective was to relate the host cytokine response to outcome of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. SETTING: Three U.S. university-affiliated medical centers. PATIENTS: Adult patients infected with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia hospitalized between July 2012 and August 2014. INTERVENTIONS: Blood specimens were obtained at Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia onset and 72 hours after therapy initiation. Levels of tissue necrosis factor, interleukin-6, interleukin-8, interleukin-17A, and interleukin-10 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay at each time point and compared between those with persistent bacteremia (≥ 4 d) and resolving bacteremia. Primary outcome was persistent bacteremia after 4 days of effective therapy. Secondary outcomes were 30-day mortality and 30-day recurrence. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A total of 196 patients were included (mean age, 59 yr); of them, 33% had methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Forty-seven percent of the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains were staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec IV. Persistent bacteremia occurred in 24% of patients (47/196); they were more likely to die than resolving bacteremia group (28% vs 5%; p < 0.001). Compared with resolving bacteremia group, persistent bacteremia patients had higher initial median levels of tissue necrosis factor (44.73 vs 21.68 pg/mL; p < 0.001), interleukin-8 (124.76 vs 47.48 pg/mL; p = 0.028), and interleukin-10 (104.31 vs 29.72 pg/mL; p < 0.001). Despite 72 hours of treatment, levels remained higher for the persistent bacteremia group than for the resolving bacteremia group (tissue necrosis factor: 26.95 vs 18.38 pg/mL, p = 0.02; interleukin-8: 70.75 vs 27.86 pg/mL, p = 0.002; interleukin-6: 67.50 vs 21.81 pg/mL, p = 0.005; and interleukin-10: 30.98 vs 12.60 pg/mL, p < 0.001). Interleukin-17A levels were similar between groups at both time points. After controlling for confounding variables by multivariate analysis, interleukin-10/tissue necrosis factor ratio at 72 hours most significantly predicted persistence (odds ratio, 2.98; 95% CI, 1.39-6.39; p = 0.005) and mortality (odds ratio, 9.87; 95% CI, 2.64-36.91; p < 0.001) at values more than 1.00 and more than 2.56, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Sustained elevation of interleukin-10/tissue necrosis factor ratio at 72 hours suggests a dysregulated immune response and may be used to guide management to improve outcomes.

Rhesus θ-defensin-1 (RTD-1) exhibits in vitro and in vivo activity against cystic fibrosis strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

OBJECTIVES: Chronic endobronchial infections with Pseudomonas aeruginosa contribute to bronchiectasis and progressive loss of lung function in patients with cystic fibrosis. This study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of a novel macrocyclic peptide, rhesus θ-defensin-1 (RTD-1), by characterizing its in vitro antipseudomonal activity and in vivo efficacy in a murine model of chronic Pseudomonas lung infection. METHODS: Antibacterial testing of RTD-1 was performed on 41 clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa obtained from cystic fibrosis patients. MIC, MBC, time-kill and post-antibiotic effects were evaluated following CLSI-recommended methodology, but using anion-depleted Mueller-Hinton broth. RTD-1 was nebulized daily for 7 days to cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) F508del-homozygous mice infected using the agar bead model of chronic P. aeruginosa lung infection. In vivo activity was evaluated by change in lung bacterial burden, airway leucocytes and body weight. RESULTS: RTD-1 exhibited potent in vitro bactericidal activity against mucoid and non-mucoid strains of P. aeruginosa (MIC90 = 8 mg/L). Cross-resistance was not observed when tested against MDR and colistin-resistant isolates. Time-kill studies indicated very rapid, concentration-dependent bactericidal activity of RTD-1 with ≥3 log10 cfu/mL reductions at concentrations ≥4× MIC. No post-antibiotic effect was observed. In vivo, nebulized treatment with RTD-1 significantly decreased lung P. aeruginosa burden (mean difference of -1.30 log10 cfu; P = 0.0061), airway leucocytes (mean difference of -0.37 log10; P = 0.0012) and weight loss (mean difference of -12.62% at day 7; P < 0.05) when compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that RTD-1 is a promising potential therapeutic agent for cystic fibrosis airway disease.

In vitro activity of daptomycin in combination with ß-lactams, gentamicin, rifampin, and tigecycline against daptomycin-nonsusceptible enterococci.

Enterococci that are nonsusceptible (NS; MIC > 4 µg/ml) to daptomycin are an emerging clinical concern. The synergistic combination of daptomycin plus beta-lactams has been shown to be effective against vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) species in vitro. This study systematically evaluated by in vitro time-kill studies the effect of daptomycin in combination with ampicillin, cefazolin, ceftriaxone, ceftaroline, ertapenem, gentamicin, tigecycline, and rifampin, for a collection of 9 daptomycin-NS enterococci that exhibited a broad range of MICs and different resistance-conferring mutations. We found that ampicillin plus daptomycin yielded the most consistent synergy but did so only for isolates with mutations to the liaFSR system. Daptomycin binding was found to be enhanced by ampicillin in a representative isolate with such mutations but not for an isolate with mutation to the yycFGHIJ system. In contrast, ampicillin enhanced the killing of the LL-37 human antimicrobial peptide against daptomycin-NS E. faecium with either the liaFSR or yycFGHIJ mutation. Antagonism was noted only for rifampin and tigecycline and only for 2 or 3 isolates. These data add support to the growing body of evidence indicating that therapy combining daptomycin and ampicillin may be helpful in eradicating refractory VRE infections.

Risk of developing pneumonia is enhanced by the combined traits of fluoroquinolone resistance and type III secretion virulence in respiratory isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the differential association of host characteristics, antimicrobial resistance, and type III secretion system virulence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates with respiratory syndromes in hospitalized adult patients. DESIGN: Retrospective, cohort study. SETTING: Community teaching hospital. PATIENTS: Two hundred eighteen consecutive adult patients with respiratory culture positive for P. aeruginosa between January 2005 to January 2010. INTERVENTIONS: Medical charts were reviewed to obtain demographic, laboratory, radiographic, and clinical information. Isolates were assayed by polymerase chain reaction for genes encoding the type III secretion system effectors (ExoU, ExoS, and PcrV) and for strain relatedness using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis. Levofloxacin susceptibility was determined by broth microdilution. Patients were grouped by colonization, bronchitis, or pneumonia and were compared for differential risk of developing the clinical syndrome with respect to host and microbial characteristics. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Half of the study cohort (54%, 117 of 218) had pneumonia, 32% (70 of 218) had bronchitis, and 14% (31 of 218) had colonization; in-hospital mortality was 35%, 11%, and 0%, respectively. Host factors strongly associated with pneumonia development were residence in long-term care facility, healthcare-associated acquisition of P. aeruginosa, higher Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score, presence of enteral feeding tube, mechanical ventilation, and recent history of pneumonia. Fluoroquinolone-resistant (57% vs 34%, 16%; p < 0.0001) and multidrug-resistant (36% vs 26%, 7%; p = 0.0045) strains were more likely to cause pneumonia than bronchitis or colonization, respectively. Analysis of host and microbial factors in a multivariate regression model yielded the combined traits of fluoroquinolone resistance and gene encoding the type III secretion system ExoU effector in P. aeruginosa as the single most significant predictor of pneumonia development. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that fluoroquinolone-resistant phenotype in a type III secretion system exoU strain background contributes toward the pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa in pneumonia.

Patients presenting to the hospital with MRSA pneumonia: differentiating characteristics and outcomes with empiric treatment.

BACKGROUND: Concern for MRSA in patients presented to the hospital with pneumonia may be overestimated leading to excessive prescribing of empiric anti-MRSA therapy. This study aims to identify at-risk patients and treatment outcomes. METHODS: Adults hospitalized during 2005-2011 with pneumonia diagnosed within 48 h of admission were included. Medical charts were retrospectively reviewed for relevant data. Patients with MRSA were matched 1:1 to those with non-MRSA pathogen or negative culture. A published risk scoring system for MRSA pneumonia was applied. RESULTS: 268 elderly patients were included, 134 patients in each group. Compared to non-MRSA group, MRSA patients presented more acutely ill (p < 0.0001) (pneumonia severity index score, 150 vs 93; vasopressor therapy, 34% vs 6%; ICU admission, 47% vs 13%; and mechanical ventilation, 35% vs 10%) and had worse outcomes (p < 0.0001) (time to reach clinical stability, 6 vs 2.5d; length of stay, 10 vs 5d; clinical failure, 28% vs 4%; 28-day mortality, 22% vs 3%). When applied to our patients, a published risk scoring scheme had 93% sensitivity but lacked specificity at 55%; 40% of medium-risk patients did not have MRSA. A history of MRSA infection or pneumonia differentiated the latter group. Most MRSA patients (66%, 88/134) were treated empirically (primarily vancomycin) but outcome was not improved by receipt of empiric therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Use of a published risk scoring scheme with additional variables from this study can potentially reduce overprescribing of anti-MRSA empiric therapy in patients presented to the hospital with pneumonia. Prospective studies evaluating the treatment benefit of non-vancomycin alternatives as empiric therapy are needed.

Comparative In Vitro Activity of Ceftazidime-Avibactam, Imipenem-Relebactam, and Meropenem-Vaborbactam against Carbapenem-Resistant Clinical Isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Co-infection with carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CRPA) is associated with poor outcomes and historically relied on combination therapy with toxic agents for management. However, several novel ß-lactam/ß-lactamase inhibitor combination agents have been developed, offering potential monotherapy options. Here, we compare the in vitro activity of ceftazidime-avibactam (CZA), imipenem-relebactam (IRL), and meropenem-vaborbactam (MVB) against both CRKP and CRPA clinical isolates. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for each agent were determined using broth microdilution. Carbapenemase gene detection was performed for representative isolates of varying carbapenem resistance phenotypes. IRL demonstrated excellent activity against CRKP and CRPA with susceptibility rates at 95.8% and 91.7%, respectively. While CZA and MVB showed comparable susceptibility to IRL against CRKP (93.8%), susceptibility of CRPA to CZA was modest at 79.2%, whereas most CRPA strains were resistant to MVB. Of the 35 CRKP isolates tested, 91.4% (32/35) carried a blaKPC gene. Only 1 of 37 (2.7%) CRPA isolates tested carried a blaVIM gene, which conferred phenotypic resistance to all three agents. None of the CRKP strains were cross-resistant to all three agents. Source of infection and co-infection did not significantly influence antimicrobial activity for IRL and CZA; none of the CRPA isolates from co-infected patients were susceptible to MVB. Our results suggest that novel ß-lactam agents with antipseudomonal activity and stability against carbapenemases, such as IRL and CZA, offer potential monotherapy options for the treatment of co-infection involving both CRKP and CRPA, but not MVB.

Tigecycline induction of phenol-soluble modulins by invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains.

We examined the effects of tigecycline on three types of exoproteins, α-type phenol-soluble modulins (PSMα1 to PSMα4), α-hemolysin, and protein A, in 13 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates compared to those of clindamycin and linezolid. Paradoxical increases in PSMαs occurred in 77% of the isolates with tigecycline at 1/4 and 1/8 MICs and clindamycin at 1/8 MIC compared to only 23% of the isolates with linezolid at 1/8 MIC. Induction was specific to PSMα1 to PSMα4, as protein A and α-hemolysin production was decreased under the same conditions by all of the antibiotics used.

Machine Learning with Alpha Toxin Phenotype to Predict Clinical Outcome in Patients with Staphylococcus aureus Bloodstream Infection.

Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream (SAB) infection remains a leading cause of sepsis-related mortality. Yet, current treatment does not account for variable virulence traits that mediate host dysregulated immune response, such as SA α-toxin (Hla)-mediated thrombocytopenia. Here, we applied machine learning (ML) to bacterial growth images combined with platelet count data to predict patient outcomes. We profiled Hla phenotypes of SA isolates collected from patients with bacteremia by taking smartphone images of beta-hemolytic growth on sheep blood agar (SBA). Electronic medical records were reviewed to extract relevant laboratory and clinical data. A convolutional neural network was applied to process the plate image data for input along with day 1 patient platelet count to generate ML-based models that predict thrombocytopenia on day 4 and mortality. A total of 229 patients infected with SA strains exhibiting varying zone sizes of beta-hemolysis on SBA were included. A total of 539 images of bacterial growth on SBA were generated as inputs for model development. One-third of patients developed thrombocytopenia at onset, with an overall mortality rate of 18.8%. The models developed from the ML algorithm showed strong performance (AUC 0.92) for predicting thrombocytopenia on day 4 of infection and modest performance (AUC 0.711) for mortality. Our findings support further development and validation of a proof-of-concept ML application in digital microbiology, with a measure of bacterial virulence factor production that carries prognostic significance and can help guide treatment selection.