Long-term impact of immediate versus deferred antiretroviral therapy on kidney health in people with HIV.

People with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are at risk for chronic kidney disease (CKD) due to HIV and antiretroviral therapy (ART) nephrotoxicity. Immediate ART initiation reduces mortality and is now the standard of care, but the long-term impact of prolonged ART exposure on CKD is unknown. To evaluate this, the Strategic Timing of Antiretroviral Treatment (START) trial randomized 4,684 ART-naïve adults with CD4 cell count under 500 cells/mm3 to immediate versus deferred ART. We previously reported a small but statistically significantly greater decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) over a median of 2.1 years in participants randomized to deferred versus immediate ART. Here, we compare the incidence of CKD events and changes in eGFR and urine albumin/creatinine ratio (UACR) in participants randomized to immediate versus deferred ART during extended follow-up. Over a median of 9.3 years, eight participants experienced kidney failure or kidney-related death, three in the immediate and five in the deferred ART arms, respectively. Over a median of five years of more comprehensive follow-up, the annual rate of eGFR decline was 1.19 mL/min/1.73m2/year, with no significant difference between treatment arms (difference deferred - immediate arm 0.055; 95% confidence interval -0.106, 0.217 mL/min/1.73m2). Results were similar in models adjusted for baseline covariates associated with CKD, including UACR and APOL1 genotype. Similarly, there was no significant difference between treatment arms in incidence of confirmed UACR 30 mg/g or more (odds ratio 1.13; 95% confidence interval 0.85, 1.51). Thus, our findings provide the most definitive evidence to date in support of the long-term safety of early ART with respect to kidney health.

The urinary proteome infers dysregulation of mitochondrial, lysosomal, and protein reabsorption processes in chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu).

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) of uncertain etiology (CKDu) is a global health concern affecting tropical farming communities. CKDu is not associated with typical risk factors (e.g., diabetes) and strongly correlates with environmental drivers. To gain potential insights into disease etiology and diagnosis, here we report the first urinary proteome comparing patients with CKDu and non-CKDu controls from Sri Lanka. We found 944 differentially abundant proteins. In silico analyses identified 636 proteins of likely kidney and urogenital origin. As expected, renal tubular injury in patients with CKDu was evinced by increases in albumin, cystatin C, and ß2-microglobulin. However, several proteins typically elevated under CKD, including osteopontin and α-N-acetylglucosaminidase, were decreased in patients with CKDu. Furthermore, urinary excretion of aquaporins found higher in CKD was lower in CKDu. Comparisons with previous CKD urinary proteome datasets revealed a unique proteome for CKDu. Notably, the CKDu urinary proteome was relatively similar to that of patients with mitochondrial diseases. Furthermore, we report a decrease in endocytic receptor proteins responsible for protein reabsorption (megalin and cubilin) that correlated with an increase in abundance of 15 of their cognate ligands. Functional pathway analyses identified kidney-specific differentially abundant proteins in patients with CKDu denoted significant changes in the complement cascade and coagulation systems, cell death, lysosomal function, and metabolic pathways. Overall, our findings provide potential early detection markers to diagnose and distinguish CKDu and warrant further analyses on the role of lysosomal, mitochondrial, and protein reabsorption processes and their link to the complement system and lipid metabolism in CKDu onset and progression.NEW & NOTEWORTHY CKDu is a global health concern debilitating a number of tropical rural farming communities. In the absence of typical risk factors like diabetes and hypertension and the lack of molecular markers, it is crucial to identify potential early disease markers. Here, we detail the first urinary proteome profile to distinguish CKDu from CKD. Our data and in silico pathway analyses infer the roles of mitochondrial, lysosomal, and protein reabsorption processes in disease onset and progression.

Association of HIV and viral suppression status with hospital acute kidney injury in the era of antiretroviral therapy.

In the modern era, it is unknown if people that are virally suppressed with HIV (PWH) are at increased risk for acute kidney injury (AKI) compared to people without HIV and no studies have compared the risk of AKI by viral suppression status. Here, we determined the associations of HIV status and AKI among PWH with and without viral suppression compared to people without HIV. An observational cohort study of PWH and people without HIV hospitalized in a large New York City health system between 2010-2019 was conducted. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were used to determine associations between HIV status and risk of AKI, severe AKI and development of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Among 173,884 hospitalized patients, 4,718 had HIV; 2,532 (53.7%) were virally suppressed and 2,186 (46.3%) were not suppressed. Compared to people without HIV, PWH with and without viral suppression were at increased risk of AKI (adjusted hazard ratio 1.27, 95% confidence interval 1.15, 1.40 and 1.73, 1.58, 1.90, respectively) and AKI requiring kidney replacement therapy (1.89, 1.27, 2.84 and 1.87, 1.23, 2.84, respectively). Incremental, graded associations were observed between HIV status and Stage 2 or 3 AKI, and among AKI survivors, and incident CKD. The elevated risk of AKI across ages of PWH was similar in magnitude to older people without HIV. Thus, regardless of virologic control, HIV is an independent risk factor for AKI among hospitalized patients. Future studies should determine the mechanisms by which HIV increases susceptibility to AKI and identify strategies to prevent AKI in PWH.

Depression and PrEP uptake, interruption, and adherence among young women in Uganda.

Depression is a common cause of morbidity globally and can impact adherence to medications, posing challenges to medication-based HIV prevention. The objectives of this work are to describe the frequency of depression symptoms in a cohort of 499 young women in Kampala, Uganda and to determine the association of depression symptoms with use of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Mild or greater depression, assessed by the patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9), was experienced by 34% of participants at enrollment. Participants with mild depression symptoms tended to uptake PrEP, request PrEP refills, and adhere to PrEP with similar frequency to women with no/minimal signs of depression. These findings highlight opportunities to leverage existing HIV prevention programs to identify women who may benefit from mental health services and may not otherwise be screened.Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03464266..

Kidney disease characteristics, prevalence, and risk factors in León, Nicaragua: a population-based study.

BACKGROUND: CKD of unknown etiology (CKDu) disproportionately affects young people in Central America who lack traditional CKD risk factors (diabetes and hypertension) and has instead been variably linked to heat stress, occupational and environmental exposures, nephrotoxic medications, and/or genetic susceptibility. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of CKD and identify risk factors for traditional CKD and CKDu in Nicaragua. METHODS: Surveys and assessment for CKD markers in urine and serum were performed in 15-59 year olds in households of the León municipality of Nicaragua. The survey included questions on demographics, health behaviors, occupation, and medical history. Participants with CKD were subdivided into traditional CKD and suspected CKDu based on history of diabetes, hypertension, or other specified conditions. A multinomial logistic regression model was used to identify factors associated with traditional CKD and suspected CKDu, compared to the non-CKD reference group. RESULTS: In 1795 study participants, CKD prevalence was 8.6%. Prevalence in males was twofold higher than females (12% vs 6%). Of those with CKD, 35% had suspected CKDu. Both traditional CKD and CKDu were associated with male sex and increasing age. Traditional CKD was associated with a family history of CKD, history of urinary tract infections, and lower socioeconomic status, while CKDu was associated with drinking well water and a lower body mass index. CONCLUSIONS: Both traditional CKD and CKDu are significant burdens in this region. Our study supports previous hypotheses of CKDu etiology and emphasizes the importance of CKD screening.

HIV at 40: kidney disease in HIV treatment, prevention, and cure.

Four decades after the first cases of HIV were reported, kidney disease remains an important comorbidity in people with HIV (PWH). Both HIV-associated nephropathy and immune complex kidney disease were recognized as complications of HIV infection in the early years before treatment was available. Although the introduction of effective antiretroviral therapy in the late 1990s resulted in dramatic improvements in survival and health in PWH, several commonly used antiretroviral agents have been associated with kidney injury. HIV infection and treatment may also promote the progression of comorbid chronic kidney disease due to traditional risk factors such as diabetes, and HIV is one of the strongest "second hits" for the high-risk APOL1 genotype. Unique considerations in the management of chronic kidney disease in PWH are largely related to the need for lifelong antiretroviral therapy, with potential for toxicity, drug-drug interactions, and polypharmacy. PWH who develop progressive chronic kidney disease are candidates for all modalities of kidney replacement therapy, including kidney transplantation, and at some centers, PWH may be candidates to serve as donors for recipients with HIV. Transplantation of kidney allografts from donors with HIV also offers a unique opportunity to study viral dynamics in the kidney, with implications for kidney health and for research toward HIV cure. In addition, HIV-transgenic animal models have provided important insights into kidney disease pathogenesis beyond HIV, and experience with HIV and HIV-related kidney disease has provided important lessons for future pandemics.

Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia Among Patients Receiving Maintenance Hemodialysis: Trends in Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes.

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Staphylococcus aureus (Saureus) bacteremia (SAB) is associated with morbidity and mortality in patients receiving maintenance hemodialysis (HD). We evaluated changes in clinical and bacterial characteristics, and their associations with clinical outcomes with SAB in this population over a 21-year period. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: 453 hospitalized, non-neutropenic adults receiving maintenance HD who developed monomicrobial SAB between 1995 and 2015. EXPOSURE: Clinical characteristics and bacterial genotype. OUTCOME: All-cause and SAB-attributable mortality, persistent bacteremia, and metastatic complications. ANALYTICAL APPROACH: Proportions of participants experiencing each outcome were calculated overall and by calendar year. Secular trends were estimated using binomial risk regression, a generalized linear model with the log link function for a binomial outcome. Associations with outcomes were estimated using logistic regression. RESULTS: Over the 21-year study period, patients receiving maintenance HD experienced significant increases in age- and diabetes-adjusted SAB-attributable mortality (0.45% [95% CI, 0.36%-0.46%] per year), persistent bacteremia (0.86% [95% CI, 0.14%-1.55%] per year), metastatic complications (0.84% [95% CI, 0.11%-1.56%] per year), and infection with the virulent Saureus clone USA300 (1.47% [95% CI, 0.33%-2.52%] per year). Over time, the suspected source of SAB was less likely to be a central venous catheter (-1.32% [95% CI, -2.05 to-0.56%] per year) or arteriovenous graft (-1.08% [95% CI, -1.54 to-0.56] per year), and more likely to be a nonvascular access source (1.89% [95% CI, 1.29%-2.43%] per year). Patients with a nonvascular access suspected source of infection were more likely to die as a result of their S aureus infection (OR, 3.20 [95% CI, 1.36-7.55]). The increase in USA300 infections may have contributed to the observed increase in persistent bacteremia (OR, 2.96 [95% CI, 1.12-7.83]) but did not explain the observed increases in SAB-attributable mortality (OR, 0.83 [95% CI, 0.19-3.61]) or metastatic complications (OR, 1.34 [95% CI, 0.53-3.41]). LIMITATIONS: Single-center, inpatient cohort. CONCLUSIONS: The clinical and molecular epidemiology of SAB in patients receiving maintenance HD has changed over time, with an increase in SAB-attributable mortality and morbidity despite a decline in catheter-related infections.

The association of lupus nephritis with adverse pregnancy outcomes among women with lupus in North America.

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the association of lupus nephritis (LN) and adverse pregnancy outcomes in prospective cohorts of pregnant women with SLE (systemic lupus erythematosus). METHODS: We conducted a patient-level pooled analysis of data from three cohorts of pregnant women with SLE. Pooled logistic regression models were used to evaluate the association of LN and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated using a fixed effect model by enrolling cohort. RESULTS: The pooled cohort included 393 women who received care at clinics in the United States and Canada from 1995 to 2015. There were 144 (37%) women with a history of LN. Compared to women without LN, those with LN had higher odds of fetal loss (OR: 1.90; 95% CI: 1.01, 3.56) and preeclampsia (OR: 2.04; 95% CI: 1.01, 4.13). Among the 31 women with active nephritis (defined as urine protein ≥ 0.5 g/24 h) there was a higher odds of poor pregnancy outcome (OR: 3.08; 95% CI: 1.31, 7.23) and fetal loss (OR: 6.29; 95% CI: 2.52, 15.70) compared to women without LN. CONCLUSIONS: In this pooled cohort of women with SLE, a history of LN was associated with fetal loss and preeclampsia. Active nephritis was associated with poor pregnancy outcome and fetal loss.

Etiology of Persistent Microalbuminuria in Nigeria (P_MICRO study): protocol and study design.

BACKGROUND: Microalbuminuria is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular and kidney disease and a predictor of end organ damage, both in the general population and in persons with HIV (PWH). Microalbuminuria is also an important risk factor for mortality in PWH treated with antiretroviral therapy (ART). In the ongoing Renal Risk Reduction (R3) study in Nigeria, we identified a high prevalence of microalbuminuria confirmed by two measurements 4-8 weeks apart in ART-experienced, virologically suppressed PWH. Although Stage 1 or 2 hypertension and exposure to potentially nephrotoxic antiretroviral medications were common in R3 participants, other traditional risk factors for albuminuria and kidney disease, including diabetes, APOL1 high-risk genotype, and smoking were rare. Co-infection with endemic pathogens may also be significant contributors to albuminuria, but co-infections were not evaluated in the R3 study population. METHODS: In Aim 1, we will cross-sectionally compare the prevalence of albuminuria and established kidney disease risk factors in a cohort of PWH to age- and sex-matched HIV-negative adults presenting for routine care at the Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital in Kano, Nigeria. We will leverage stored specimens from 2500 R3 participants and enroll an additional 500 PLWH recently initiated on ART (≤ 24 months) and 750 age- and sex-matched HIV-negative adults to determine the contribution of HIV, hypertension, and other comorbid medical conditions to prevalent albuminuria. In Aim 2, we will follow a cohort of 1000 HIV-positive, ART-treated and 500 HIV-negative normoalbuminuric adults for 30 months to evaluate the incidence and predictors of albuminuria. DISCUSSION: The findings from this study will support the development of interventions to prevent or address microalbuminuria in PWH to reduce kidney and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Such interventions might include more intensive monitoring and treatment of traditional risk factors, the provision of renin-angiotensin aldosterone system or sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors, consideration of changes in ART regimen, and screening and treatment for relevant co-infections.

Apolipoprotein-1 risk variants and associated kidney phenotypes in an adult HIV cohort in Nigeria.

HIV-positive adults are at risk for various kidney diseases, and apolipoprotein 1 (APOL1) high-risk genotypes increase this risk. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and ethnic distribution of APOL1 risk genotypes among a cohort of HIV-positive Nigerian adults and explore the relationship between APOL1 risk variant status with albuminuria and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). We conducted a cross-sectional study among 2 458 persons living with HIV who attended an HIV clinic in northern Nigeria and had received antiretroviral therapy for a minimum of six months. We collected two urine samples four-eight weeks apart to measure albumin excretion, and blood samples to measure eGFR and determine APOL1 genotype. The frequency of APOL1 high-risk genotype was 6.2%, which varied by ethnic group: Hausa/Fulani (2.1%), Igbo (49.1%), and Yoruba (14.5%). The prevalence of microalbuminuria (urine/albumin creatinine ratio 30- 300 mg/g) was 37%, and prevalence of macroalbuminuria (urine/albumin creatinine ratio over 300 mg/g) was 3%. The odds of microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria were higher for participants with the APOL1 high-risk genotype compared to those carrying the low-risk genotype ([adjusted odds ratio 1.97, 95% confidence interval 1.37-2.82] and [3.96, 1.95-8.02] respectively). APOL1 high-risk genotype participants were at higher risk of having both an eGFR under 60 ml/min/1.73m2 and urine/albumin creatinine ratio over 300 mg/g (5.56, 1.57-19.69). Thus, we found a high proportion of HIV-positive, antiretroviral therapy-experienced, and largely virologically suppressed adults had microalbuminuria. Hence, although the high-risk APOL1 genotype was less prevalent than expected, it was strongly associated with some level of albuminuria.

An Evaluation of Baseline Kidney Function in the REPRIEVE Trial of Pitavastatin in Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease is a common comorbid condition among persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (PWH). We characterized baseline kidney function in the REPRIEVE (Randomized Trial to Prevent Vascular Events in HIV) trial cohort. METHODS: REPRIEVE enrolled PWH with low to moderate cardiovascular risk based on traditional risk factors to evaluate the effect of statin therapy on cardiovascular events. We determined baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) with the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI), Modification of Diet in Renal Disease, and Cockcroft-Gault equations, and we evaluated baseline factors associated with eGFR <90 mL/min/1.73 m2 by logistic regression. We performed Bland-Altman plots and scatterplots to assess agreement between equations. RESULTS: Among 7770 participants enrolled, the median age was 50 years, 31% were female (natal sex), 43% black or African American and 15% Asian, the median body mass index (calculated as calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared) was 25.8, and the median CD4 cell count 620/µL. The median CKD-EPI eGFR was 97 mL/min/1.73 m2, and 38% had an eGFR <90 mL/min/1.73 m2. In the adjusted model, factors associated with eGFR <90 mL/min/1.73 m2 included white race, older age, higher body mass index, high-income region of enrollment, hypertension, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate. The CKD-EPI and Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equations demonstrated strong agreement, particularly at lower eGFR values. Overall, there was 56% concordance between the 3 equations (categories <60, 60 to <90, ≥90 mL/min), improving to 73% after accounting for individual body surface area. CONCLUSIONS: REPRIEVE enrolled a diverse cohort including a substantial number of PWH with reduced kidney function. Factors associated with reduced eGFR included traditional risk factors and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate exposure. Three commonly used equations have only fair agreement, with potential implications for both clinical care and epidemiologic studies. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT02344290.

The spectrum of kidney biopsy findings in HIV-infected patients in the modern era.

HIV-associated kidney disease is evolving rapidly. Few North American studies have addressed modern trends and none has applied the 2018 Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) pathologic classification. Therefore we performed a retrospective clinical-pathologic analysis of all HIV-positive patients with kidney biopsy interpreted at Columbia University from 2010-2018 using the KDIGO classification. The biopsy cohort of 437 HIV-positive patients had median age 53 years, including 66% males, 80% on anti-retroviral therapy, 57% with hypertension, 31% with diabetes, 27% with hepatitis C and 6% with hepatitis B co-infections. Race, known in 308 patients, included 58% black, 25% white and 17% Hispanic. Pathologic diagnoses were surprisingly diverse. Immune complex glomerulonephritis (ICGN) and diabetic nephropathy each outnumbered HIV-associated nephropathy, followed by tenofovir nephrotoxicity, FSGS- not otherwise specified (NOS) and global sclerosis (NOS). HIV-associated nephropathy was the most common disease in patients not on anti-retroviral therapy, and 94% were black. The association of FSGS (NOS) with black race (68%) and anti-retroviral therapy use (77%) suggests some cases may represent attenuated HIV-associated nephropathy. The most common ICGNs were IgA nephropathy and membranous glomerulopathy, both associating with anti-retroviral therapy (over 90%), followed by hepatitis C-associated proliferative ICGN. Among the 16 cases of uncharacterized ICGN lacking identifiable etiology, 69% were not on anti-retroviral therapy, possibly representing true HIV-associated immune complex kidney disease. Dual diseases occurred in 17% of patients, underscoring lesion complexity. Thus, anti-retroviral therapy has shifted the landscape of HIV-associated kidney disease toward diverse ICGN, diabetic nephropathy, and non-collapsing glomerulosclerosis, but has not eradicated HIV-associated nephropathy.

Drug Development in Kidney Disease: Proceedings From a Multistakeholder Conference.

Occasional bursts of discovery and innovation have appeared during the otherwise stagnant past several decades of drug development in nephrology. Among other recent drug discoveries, the unexpected kidney benefits observed with sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors may herald a renaissance of drug development in kidney disease. This recent progress highlights the need to further promote and stimulate research and development of promising therapies that may ameliorate the morbidity and mortality associated with kidney disease. To help identify and address barriers to drug development in nephrology, the Duke Clinical Research Institute convened a conference in April 2019 that included stakeholders from academia, industry, government agencies, and patient advocacy. From these discussions, several opportunities were identified to improve every stage of drug development for kidney disease from early discovery to implementation into practice. Key topics reviewed in this article are the utility of interconnected data and site research networks, surrogate end points, pragmatic and adaptive trial designs, the promising uses of real-world data, and methods to improve the generalizability of trial results and uptake of approved drugs for kidney-related diseases.

Kidney disease in the setting of HIV infection: conclusions from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference.

HIV-positive individuals are at increased risk for kidney disease, including HIV-associated nephropathy, noncollapsing focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, immune-complex kidney disease, and comorbid kidney disease, as well as kidney injury resulting from prolonged exposure to antiretroviral therapy or from opportunistic infections. Clinical guidelines for kidney disease prevention and treatment in HIV-positive individuals are largely extrapolated from studies in the general population, and do not fully incorporate existing knowledge of the unique HIV-related pathways and genetic factors that contribute to the risk of kidney disease in this population. We convened an international panel of experts in nephrology, renal pathology, and infectious diseases to define the pathology of kidney disease in the setting of HIV infection; describe the role of genetics in the natural history, diagnosis, and treatment of kidney disease in HIV-positive individuals; characterize the renal risk-benefit of antiretroviral therapy for HIV treatment and prevention; and define best practices for the prevention and management of kidney disease in HIV-positive individuals.

Potential kidney toxicity from the antiviral drug tenofovir: new indications, new formulations, and a new prodrug.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The antiviral agent tenofovir is highly effective for the treatment of HIV and hepatitis B virus infections, and the older prodrug tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) is also a component of daily preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to reduce the risk of HIV infection in high-risk populations. Although TDF is well tolerated, the potential for kidney and bone toxicity has important implications for public health given the large number of individuals exposed to TDF worldwide. This review summarizes the recent literature on kidney and bone health in individuals treated with TDF and the newer prodrug tenofovir alafenamide (TAF). RECENT FINDINGS: Risk factors for TDF toxicity appear to be similar in patients treated for HIV or hepatitis B virus and in HIV-uninfected PrEP users, although drug-drug interactions are a more important concern in HIV-positive individuals. The risk of toxicity appears to be lower with TAF, but further studies are needed to confirm the safety of long-term use and to evaluate the efficacy of TAF-based PrEP. SUMMARY: Nephrologists should be aware of the potential kidney and bone toxicity of TDF, as well as unique situations in which the newer prodrug TAF may contribute to kidney injury.

Marijuana and Cannabinoids in ESRD and Earlier Stages of CKD.

Marijuana is the most commonly used recreational drug in the United States, and legal recreational and medicinal use has gained public acceptance during the last decade. Twenty-nine US states have established medical marijuana programs, 8 of which have also legalized recreational marijuana, and Canada is expected to legalize recreational marijuana in 2018. Advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) are chronic conditions with significant associated morbidity and mortality. Patients experience substantial symptom burden that is frequently undertreated due to adverse medication side effects. This article reviews the available evidence for the use of medical marijuana to manage chronic pain, nausea/vomiting, anorexia/cachexia, and pruritus, all of which are frequently reported by patients with advanced CKD or ESRD. Potential adverse health effects of medical and recreational marijuana use are also discussed. Regardless of personal, social, and political beliefs, marijuana use is becoming mainstream, and nephrologists should be aware of the potential impact on our patient population. Further research is warranted to investigate the renal endocannabinoid system, the impact of marijuana use on kidney disease outcomes, and the risks and benefits of medical marijuana use on symptoms of advanced CKD and ESRD.

BP Control and Long-Term Risk of ESRD and Mortality.

We recently showed an association between strict BP control and lower mortality risk during two decades of follow-up of prior participants in the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) trial. Here, we determined the risk of ESRD and mortality during extended follow-up of the African American Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension (AASK) trial. We linked 1067 former AASK participants with CKD previously randomized to strict or usual BP control (mean arterial pressure ≤92 mmHg or 102-107 mmHg, respectively) to the US Renal Data System and Social Security Death Index; 397 patients had ESRD and 475 deaths occurred during a median follow-up of 14.4 years from 1995 to 2012. Compared with the usual BP arm, the strict BP arm had unadjusted and adjusted relative risks of ESRD of 0.92 (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 0.75 to 1.12) and 0.95 (95% CI, 0.78 to 1.16; P=0.64), respectively, and unadjusted and adjusted relative risks of death of 0.92 (95% CI, 0.77 to 1.10) and 0.81 (95% CI, 0.68 to 0.98; P=0.03), respectively. In meta-analyses of individual-level data from the MDRD and the AASK trials, unadjusted relative risk of ESRD was 0.88 (95% CI, 0.78 to 1.00) and unadjusted relative risk of death was 0.87 (95% CI, 0.76 to 0.99) for strict versus usual BP arms. Our findings suggest that, during long-term follow-up, strict BP control does not delay the onset of ESRD but may reduce the relative risk of death in CKD.

A rose by any other name: is stage 3a chronic kidney disease really a disease?

Experts have questioned the clinical relevance of early stage 3 chronic kidney disease, particularly in elderly individuals and in those without albuminuria. A recent study published in PLoS Medicine provides further evidence that many older adults with stage 3a chronic kidney disease will never worsen, whereas some may even improve. Despite limited generalizability, the results support the current, more nuanced classification of chronic kidney disease for use in clinical practice and in future epidemiologic research.