Influence of morbidity, early nutritional intake, and total energy: protein ratio on longitudinal extrauterine growth restriction of very preterm newborns at term-equivalent age: an observational study.

To evaluate the influence of early nutritional intake on the growth pattern of very preterm infants. This was an observational study including 109 newborns (< 32 weeks gestational age). Perinatal morbidities, nutritional therapy (first four weeks of life), and weight, length, and head circumference (HC) growth at term-equivalent age were evaluated. Growth restriction was defined as a difference > 1.2 SD between the birth and term age measurements. Growth restriction at term-equivalent age: 52.3% (weight), 42.9% (length), and 22% (HC). Morbidities were positively correlated with nutrition therapy and negatively correlated with the total energy provision: protein ratio. The duration of parenteral nutrition, the time to reach full enteral feedings, and the total energy provision: protein ratio were significantly correlated. Nutrient intake influenced weight, length, and HC growth, and cumulative energy deficit was significantly associated with HC growth restriction.   Conclusion: Perinatal morbidities interfere with nutritional therapy and early nutrient intake, leading to insufficient energy and energy provision: protein ratio for growth. What is Known: • The intake of macronutrients early in life, mainly protein, is important for the optimal growth of pretem infants. • The severity of morbidities and low gestational ages impact the nutritional management of preterm infants. What is New: • The number of morbidities, reflecting the severity of the neonatal clinical course, had a detrimental effect on the nutritional therapy and nutrients intake. • The inadequate energy provision per gram of protein ratio was significantly associated with growth restriction in all growth measures at the second week of life, persisting for head circumference up to the fourth week, highlighting the importance of its measurement, as it could be a precocious sign of development risk.

Neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm with necrotizing enterocolitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

While neonatal necrotising enterocolitis (NEC) is associated with high mortality rates in newborns, survivors can face long-term sequelae. However, the relationship between NEC and neurodevelopmental impairment (NDI) in preterm infants remains unclear. To explore the relationship between neonatal NEC and neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants, we searched PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library from their inception to February 2024 for relevant studies. Studies included were cohort or case-control studies reporting neurodevelopmental outcomes of NEC in preterm infants. Two independent investigators extracted data regarding brain damage and neurodevelopmental outcomes in these infants at a corrected age exceeding 12 months. Odds ratios (ORs) were pooled using a random effects model. We included 15 cohort studies and 18 case-control studies, encompassing 60,346 infants. Meta-analysis of unadjusted and adjusted ORs demonstrated a significant association between NEC and increased odds of NDI (OR 2.15, 95% CI 1.9-2.44; aOR 1.89, 95% CI 1.46-2.46). Regarding brain injury, pooled crude ORs indicated an association of NEC with severe intraventricular haemorrhage (IVH) (OR 1.42, 95% CI 1.06-1.92) and periventricular leucomalacia (PVL) (OR 2.55, 95% CI 1.76-3.69). When compared with conservatively treated NEC, surgical NEC potentially carries a higher risk of NDI (OR 1.78, 95% CI 1.09-2.93) and severe IVH (OR 1.57, 95% CI 1.20-2.06). However, the risk of PVL did not show a significant difference (OR 1.60, 95% CI 0.47-5.40). CONCLUSIONS:  Our meta-analysis provides evidence suggesting an association between NEC and NDI. Additionally, the severity of intestinal lesions appears to correlate with a higher risk of NDI. Further high-quality studies with comprehensive adjustments for potential confounding factors are required to definitively establish whether the association with NDI is causal. WHAT IS KNOWN: • NEC is a serious intestinal disease in the neonatal period with a high mortality rate, and surviving children may have digestive system sequelae. • Compared with non-NEC preterm infants, the reported incidences of brain injury and neurodevelopmental disorders in NEC preterm infants are not the same. WHAT IS NEW: • The risk of neonatal brain injury and neurodevelopmental disorders in preterm infants with NEC is higher than that in non-NEC infants, and the risk of NDI in surgical NEC infants is higher than that in the conservative treatment group. • NEC may increase the risk of motor, cognitive, language development delays, and attention deficits in children.

Risk factors for acute kidney injury in very-low birth weight newborns: a systematic review with meta-analysis.

This study aims to analyze the main risk factors for acute kidney injury in the subgroup of very-low birth weight newborns, using the diagnosing criteria of the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) or the Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN). A systematic review of the literature was performed on the EMBASE® and PubMed® platforms. Studies that evaluated the risk factors for developing AKI in VLBW newborns were included. For the meta-analysis, we only included the risk factors that were associated with AKI in the univariate analysis of at least two studies. After an initial screening, abstract readings, and full-text readings, 10 articles were included in the systematic review and 9 in the meta-analysis. The incidence of AKI varied from 11.6 to 55.8%. All the studies have performed multivariate analysis, and the risk factors that appeared most were PDA and hemodynamic instability (use of inotropes or hypotension), sepsis, and invasive mechanical ventilation. After the meta-analysis, only cesarian delivery did not show an increased risk of AKI, all the other variables remained as important risk factors. Moreover, in our meta-analysis, we found a pooled increased risk of death in newborns with AKI almost 7 times.  Conclusion: AKI in VLBW has several risk factors and must be seen as a multifactorial disease. The most common risk factors were PDA, hemodynamic instability, sepsis, and invasive mechanical ventilation. What is known: • Acute kidney injury is associated with worst outcomes in all ages. It´s prevention can help diminish mortality. What is new: • A synthesis of the main risk factors associated with AKI in very low birth weight newborns.

Association between preterm birth and asthma and atopic dermatitis in preschool children: a nationwide population-based study.

Asthma and atopic dermatitis (AD) are representative chronic diseases in childhood. This study aimed to investigate the impact of preterm birth on the incidence and severity of asthma and AD in children, as well as to identify neonatal risk factors for asthma and AD. We used health claims data recorded between 2007 and 2014 in the Korean National Health Insurance Service database. We recruited 2,224,476 infants born between 2007 and 2014 and divided them into three groups: 3518 of extremely preterm (EP) infants (< 28 weeks of gestational age (GA)), 82,579 of other preterm (OP) infants (28-36 weeks of GA), and 2,138,379 of full-term (FT) infants (> 37 weeks of GA). We defined asthma as > 3 episodes of clinical visits in a year before 6 years of age, early asthma as onset at < 2 years of age, and severe asthma as > 1 event of status asthmaticus or admission to a hospital via an emergency room. AD was defined as ≥ 3 diagnoses in a year before 6 years of age, early AD as onset at < 2 years of age, and severe AD as prescription of high-potency topical steroids or immunosuppressants. An association of preterm birth with asthma and AD was assessed using inverse probability of treatment-weighted multivariable Cox regression analysis. Cardiorespiratory conditions, such as respiratory distress syndrome, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, patent ductus arteriosus, and pulmonary hypertension, significantly increased the risk of asthma. Specifically, bronchopulmonary dysplasia emerged as a significant risk factor for both severe and early-onset asthma (odds ratio (OR) 1.36, 95% CI 1.21-1.37 for severe asthma; OR 1.55, 95% CI 1.30-1.85 for early asthma), while it was associated with a decreased risk of AD (OR 0.86, 95% CI 0.80-0.92). Neonatal sepsis, jaundice, and retinopathy of prematurity were also identified as significant risk factors for later asthma. A stepwise increase in the risk of asthma with an increasing degree of prematurity was observed, with the OP group showing an adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) of 1.24 (95% CI: 1.22-1.26) and the EP group showing an aHR of 1.51 (95% CI: 1.41-1.63). Conversely, preterm birth was inversely associated with the risk of AD, with aHRs of 0.73 (95% CI: 0.67-0.79) for the OP group and 0.88 (95% CI: 0.87-0.89) for the EP group. Conclusion Preterm children have a significantly higher risk of asthma and lower risk of AD, with cardiorespiratory conditions significantly increasing the risk of asthma. Thus, we highlight the need for targeted respiratory management strategies for this high-risk population. What is Known: •Asthma and atopic dermatitis are prevalent chronic diseases in childhood, reducing the quality of life of children. •Preterm birth was associated with an increased risk of asthma, but few large nationwide studies. •Research on the relationship between preterm birth and pediatric atopic dermatitis is controversial, with few large nationwide studies. What is New: • Preterm children, especially born before 28 weeks of gestational age, had a significantly higher risk of asthma and lower risk of atopic dermatitis. • Cardiorespiratory comorbidities such as RDS, BPD, PDA, and pulmonary hypertension in neonatal period are prominent risk factors for asthma. • Preterm children are vulnerable to both early-onset and severe asthma.

Post-ligation cardiac syndrome after surgical versus transcatheter closure of patent ductus arteriosus in low body weight premature infants: a multicenter retrospective cohort study.

Transcatheter patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) closure is a safe and effective alternative to surgical ligation in low-body-weight infants. Post-ligation cardiac syndrome (PLCS) is defined as severe hemodynamic and respiratory collapse within 24 h of PDA closure, requiring initiation or an increase of an inotropic agent by > 20% of preligation dosing and an absolute increase of at least 20% in ventilation parameters compared with the preoperative value. Whilst PLCS is routinely observed after surgery, its incidence remains poorly described following transcatheter closure. This study aimed to compare the incidence of PLCS after surgical versus transcatheter closure of PDA in low-body-weight premature infants. Propensity scores were used to compare surgical (N = 78) and transcatheter (N = 76) groups of preterm infants who underwent PDA closure at a procedural weight less than 2000 g in two tertiary institutions between 2009 and 2021. The primary outcome was the incidence of PLCS. Secondary outcomes included overall mortality before discharge, risk factors for PLCS, and post-procedural complications. Procedural success was 100% in both groups. After matching, transcatheter group experienced no PLCS vs 15% in the surgical group (p = 0.012). Furthermore, overall mortality (2% vs 17%; p = 0.03) and major complications (2% vs 23%; p = 0.002) were higher in the surgical group. Surgery (100% vs 47%; p < 0.01), gestation age (25 ± 1 vs 26 ± 2 weeks, p < 0.05) and inotropic support before closure (90% vs 29%; p < 0.001) were associated with PLCS occurrence.          Conclusion: Transcatheter PDA closure may be equally effective but safer than surgical PDA closure in low-body-weight premature infants. What is Known: • Post-ligation cardiac syndrome is a serious and common complication of surgical closure of the ductus arteriosus in preterm infants. • Transcatheter closure of preterm ductus arteriosus is a safe and effective technique that is becoming more and more common worldwide. What is New: • Device closure is safer than surgical ligation for patent ductus arteriosus closure in preterm infants and may be the first-line non-pharmacological therapeutic option in this indication in experienced teams. • Our findings should encourage neonatologists and pediatric cardiologists to start and/or strengthen a durable interventional program for transcatheter PDA closure in premature infants.

The role of nutrition in analysis of risk factors and short-term outcomes for late-onset necrotizing enterocolitis among very preterm infants: a nationwide, multicenter study in China.

BACKGROUND: Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a serious gastrointestinal disease, primarily affects preterm newborns and occurs after 7 days of life (late-onset NEC, LO-NEC). Unfortunately, over the past several decades, not much progress has been made in its treatment or prevention. This study aimed to analyze the risk factors for LO-NEC, and the impact of LO-NEC on short-term outcomes in very preterm infants (VPIs) with a focus on nutrition and different onset times. METHOD: Clinical data of VPIs were retrospectively collected from 28 hospitals in seven different regions of China from September 2019 to December 2020. A total of 2509 enrolled VPIs were divided into 2 groups: the LO-NEC group and non-LO-NEC group. The LO-NEC group was divided into 2 subgroups based on the onset time: LO-NEC occurring between 8 ~ 14d group and LO-NEC occurring after 14d group. Clinical characteristics, nutritional status, and the short-term clinical outcomes were analyzed and compared among these groups. RESULTS: Compared with the non-LO-NEC group, the LO-NEC group had a higher proportion of anemia, blood transfusion, and invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) treatments before NEC; the LO-NEC group infants had a longer fasting time, required longer duration to achieve the target total caloric intake (110 kcal/kg) and regain birthweight, and showed slower weight growth velocity; the cumulative dose of the medium-chain and long-chain triglyceride (MCT/LCT) emulsion intake in the first week after birth was higher and breastfeeding rate was lower. Additionally, similar results including a higher proportion of IMV, lower breastfeeding rate, more MCT/LCT emulsion intake, slower growth velocity were also found in the LO-NEC group occurring between 8 ~ 14d when compared to the LO-NEC group occurring after 14 d (all (P < 0.05). After adjustment for the confounding factors, high proportion of breastfeeding were identified as protective factors and long fasting time before NEC were identified as risk factors for LO-NEC; early feeding were identified as protective factors and low gestational age, grade III ~ IV neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (NRDS), high accumulation of the MCT/LCT emulsion in the first week were identified as risk factors for LO-NEC occurring between 8 ~ 14d. Logistic regression analysis showed that LO-NEC was a risk factor for late-onset sepsis, parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis, metabolic bone disease of prematurity, and extrauterine growth retardation. CONCLUSION: Actively preventing premature birth, standardizing the treatment of grade III ~ IV NRDS, and optimizing enteral and parenteral nutrition strategies may help reduce the risk of LO-NEC, especially those occurring between 8 ~ 14d, which may further ameliorate the short-term clinical outcome of VPIs. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ChiCTR1900023418 (26/05/2019).

Establishment and validation of apnea risk prediction models in preterm infants: a retrospective case control study.

BACKGROUND: Apnea is common in preterm infants and can be accompanied with severe hypoxic damage. Early assessment of apnea risk can impact the prognosis of preterm infants. We constructed a prediction model to assess apnea risk in premature infants for identifying high-risk groups. METHODS: A total of 162 and 324 preterm infants with and without apnea who were admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit of Xiamen University between January 2018 and December 2021 were selected as the case and control groups, respectively. Demographic characteristics, laboratory indicators, complications of the patients, pregnancy-related factors, and perinatal risk factors of the mother were collected retrospectively. The participants were randomly divided into modeling (n = 388) and validation (n = 98) sets in an 8:2 ratio. Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to independently filter variables from the modeling set and build a model. A nomogram was used to visualize models. The calibration and clinical utility of the model was evaluated using consistency index, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, calibration curve, and decision curve, and the model was verified using the validation set. RESULTS: Results of LASSO combined with multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that gestational age at birth, birth length, Apgar score, and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome were predictors of apnea development in preterm infants. The model was presented as a nomogram and the Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit test showed a good model fit (χ2=5.192, df=8, P=0.737), with Nagelkerke R2 of 0.410 and C-index of 0.831. The area under the ROC curve and 95% CI were 0.831 (0.787-0.874) and 0.829 (0.722-0.935), respectively. Delong's test comparing the AUC of the two data sets showed no significant difference (P=0.976). The calibration curve showed good agreement between the predicted and actual observations. The decision curve results showed that the threshold probability range of the model was 0.07-1.00, the net benefit was high, and the constructed clinical prediction model had clinical utility. CONCLUSIONS: Our risk prediction model based on gestational age, birth length, Apgar score 10 min post-birth, and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome was validated in many aspects and had good predictive efficacy and clinical utility.

Recovery from parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis takes approximately two months in very low birth weight infants.

AIM: To investigate the clinical characteristics and course of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis (PNAC) in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. METHODS: The charts of VLBW infants were retrospectively reviewed. The clinical characteristics of infants with and without PNAC were compared, trends in liver enzymes were investigated, and the characteristics of infants with PNAC were analysed based on age of onset. RESULTS: PNAC was observed in 53 (13.2%) of 403 infants who survived and completed follow-up and was associated with significantly lower gestational age, birth weight, and adverse neonatal outcomes. PNAC started at a median 32 (interquartile range 23-47) days, PN was applied for 53 (34.5-64.5) days, the maximum direct bilirubin (DB) was observed at 63 (50-76) postnatal days, and PNAC resolved at 94 (79-122) postnatal days postnatal age. PNAC lasted 61 (38-89.5) days. AST and ALT normalised at 111 (100.3-142.0) and 109.5 (97-161.3) postnatal days. Infants with early-onset PNAC had significantly longer PN duration, higher maximum DB, and higher maximum AST than those with late-onset PNAC. CONCLUSION: Elevated DB, AST, and ALT persist for a long period after discontinuing PN. We suggest a cautious approach that involves waiting and reducing the frequency of additional repetitive examinations.

Actual electrolyte intake during the first week of life and morbidity in very-low-birthweight infants.

AIM: To describe sodium and potassium intake, their sources and plasma concentrations, and the association between intake and morbidity in very-low-birthweight (VLBW, <1500 g) infants during the first week of life. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study comprised 951 VLBW infants born at <32 weeks. Infants were divided into three groups according to gestational age: 23-26 (n = 275), 27-29 (n = 433) and 30-31 (n = 243) weeks. Data on fluid management and laboratory findings were acquired from an electronic patient information system. RESULTS: The median sodium intake was highest in the 23-26 week group, peaking at 6.4 mmol/kg/day. A significant proportion of sodium derived from intravascular flushes; it reached 27% on day 1 in the 23-26 week group. High cumulative sodium intake in the first postnatal week was associated with weight gain from birth to day 8 in the 23-26 week group. High intake of sodium associated with an increased risk of surgically ligated patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), bronchopulmonary dysplasia and intraventricular haemorrhage, whereas low intake of potassium associated with an increased risk of PDA. CONCLUSION: Sodium intake in the most premature infants exceeded recommendations during the first postnatal week. Saline flushes accounted for a significant proportion of the sodium load.

Early skin-to-skin contact and the risk of intraventricular haemorrhage and sepsis in preterm infants.

AIM: This study aimed to investigate the risks of intraventricular haemorrhage (IVH) or sepsis in extremely and very preterm infants exposed to early skin-to-skin contact (SSC). METHODS: Data from the Swedish Neonatal Quality Register from 2015 to 2021 were extracted to compare the proportions of infants exposed and not exposed to SSC on day 0 and/or 1 in life that developed IVH or sepsis. RESULTS: A total of 2514 infants, 1005 extremely preterm and 1509 very preterm, were included. This amounted to 69% of all extremely and very preterm infants born during the study period. The proportion of infants with IVH exposed and not exposed to early SSC was 11% and 27%, an adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of 0.67 (95%CI 0.52-0.86, p = 0.002). The proportion of infants with sepsis exposed and not exposed to early SSC was 16% and 30%, an aOR of 0.94 (95%CI 0.75-1.2, p = 0.60). For extremely preterm infants, the proportion with sepsis when exposed and not exposed to early SSC was 29% and 44%, an aOR of 0.65 (95%CI 0.46-0.92, p = 0.015). CONCLUSION: In the current setting, the risk of IVH or sepsis is not increased when an extremely or very preterm infant is exposed to early SSC.

Risk factors associated with intraventricular hemorrhage in very-low-birth-weight premature infants.

PURPOSE: To analyze the association between risk factors and severe intraventricular hemorrhage (grade II-IV) in PNB under 1500 g. METHODS: Multicenter, retrospective, analytical, case-control study in PNB under 34 weeks and under 1500 g admitted to the NICU. CASE: PNB with severe intraventricular hemorrhage (grade II-IV). Logistic regression analysis was used to adjust for IVH-associated variables and odds ratios (OR). RESULTS: A total of 90 PNB files were analyzed, 45 cases and 45 controls. The highest risk factors for severe IVH were lower gestational age (OR 1.3, p < 0.001), perinatal asphyxia (OR 12, p < 0.001), Apgar < 6 at minute 1 and 5 (OR 6.3, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Lower gestational age, birth asphyxia, Apgar score lower of 6, and respiratory-type factors are associated with increased risk for severe IVH.

Hypophosphataemia and late-onset sepsis in extremely preterm neonates: A case-control study.

AIM: Late-onset sepsis (LOS) is common in extreme prematurity. These infants are at risk of refeeding syndrome-associated hypophosphataemia. Our objective was to investigate whether hypophosphataemia predisposes to LOS in extremely premature neonates. METHODS: A retrospective case-control study of neonates born before 29 weeks' gestation in an Australian NICU from 2016 to 2020. Cases developed LOS or localised infection. Two controls, matched within 2 gestational weeks and 90 calendar days, were selected per case. RESULTS: Amongst 48 cases and 93 controls, cases were smaller at birth (767 g vs. 901 g, P = 0.01), but were otherwise comparable. Hypophosphataemia was more common in cases (26% vs. 15%, P = 0.18). Increased intravenous protein intake in the first week was protective against LOS (OR = 0.9, 95% CI 0.76-1.00, P = 0.04); median 2.1 g/kg/day in cases, 2.3 g/kg/day in controls. CONCLUSIONS: Hypophosphataemia as part of refeeding syndrome is prevalent and under-recognised in extremely premature neonates. We did not find an association between hypophosphataemia and LOS. Low intravenous protein may be an independent risk factor for infection.

Cerebellar injury in preterm infants less than 28 weeks gestational age.

BACKGROUND: Cerebellar injury is one of the perinatal complications in preterm infants. Recent studies have highlighted the effect of perinatal complications on neurological morbidity. We investigated the perinatal risk factors and morbidity for cerebellar injury in extremely premature infants. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study included 285 infants born between April 2009 and December 2020 at gestational age <28 weeks at our institution. The infants were divided into two groups based on magnetic resonance imaging findings: those with and without cerebellar injury. We performed a statistical analysis of the perinatal background and short-term morbidity of the two groups. RESULTS: Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed between the groups with respect to the perinatal background, especially gestational weeks, birthweight, and hemoglobin values at birth. In the short-term morbidity, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in the incidence of respiratory distress syndrome, chronic lung disease, hydrocephalus, severe intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), and cerebellar hemorrhage. Extensive cerebellar lesions, such as cerebellar agenesis or global cerebellar hypoplasia, accounted for 11 of the 22 cases of cerebellar injury; seven of the 11 cases had severe IVH in addition to cerebellar hemorrhage. CONCLUSIONS: Gestational age was significantly lower in the cerebellar injury group. The combination of severe IVH and cerebellar hemorrhage may promote cerebellar injury.

Impact of Routine Gastric Aspirate Monitoring on Very Low Birth Weight Early Preterm Infants.

OBJECTIVES: Routine gastric aspirate (RGA) monitoring is a common yet controversial practice intended for early identification of gastrointestinal pathology in infants receiving gavage feeds. Our objectives were to evaluate the association of ceasing RGA monitoring on the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) as well as nutritional outcomes in a large population of very low birth weight (VLBW) and very preterm neonates. METHODS: Retrospective record review of neonates born ≤32 weeks and/or VLBW from 2 cohorts: (1) during pre-feed RGA monitoring (September 2015 to June 2018) and (2) after cessation of RGA ("non-RGA") monitoring (July 2018 to December 2020). We compared incidence of NEC, time-to-full enteral feeds, central line duration, and duration of parenteral nutrition (PN) in bivariate and multivariable models accounting for changes in feeding protocols over time. RESULTS: We identified 617 subjects, 53% in the RGA monitoring cohort (n = 327) and 47% in non-RGA cohort (n = 290). The non-RGA cohort had feeds initiated earlier ( P < 0.0001), achieved full enteral feeds more rapidly ( P < 0.0001), received a shorter duration of PN ( P = 0.0003), and had shorter central access duration ( P < 0.0001) without increasing NEC risk. In fact, the non-RGA cohort had a lower incidence of NEC ( P = 0.0345) compared to the RGA cohort. Even after adjusting for changes in feeding protocols over time in a multivariable model, the RGA cohort had significantly higher odds of NEC. CONCLUSIONS: Pre-feed RGA monitoring in the absence of concerning clinical exam findings is not indicated for neonates receiving gavage feeds as it does not improve NEC incidence but instead may delay important nutritional outcomes such as feed initiation and central line removal.

Diaphragmatic muscle function in term and preterm infants.

We aimed to assess the determinants of diaphragmatic function in term and preterm infants. 149 infants (56 term; 93 preterm, of whom 14 were diagnosed with bronchopulmonary dysplasia-BPD) were studied before discharge. Diaphragmatic function was assessed by measurement of the maximum transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdimax)-a measure of diaphragmatic strength, and the pressure-time index of the diaphragm (PTIdi)-a measure of the load-to-capacity ratio of the diaphragm. The Pdimax was higher in term than preterm infants without BPD (90.1 ± 16.3 vs 81.1 ± 11.8 cmH2O; P = 0.001). Term-born infants also had lower PTIdi compared to preterms without BPD (0.052 ± 0.014 vs 0.060 ± 0.017; P = 0.006). In term and preterm infants without BPD, GA was the most significant predictor of Pdimax and PTIdi, independently of the duration of mechanical ventilation and oxygen support. In infants with GA < 32 weeks (n = 30), the Pdimax was higher in infants without BPD compared to those with BPD (76.1 ± 11.1 vs 65.2 ± 11.9 cmH2O; P = 0.015). Preterms without BPD also had lower PTIdi compared to those with BPD (0.069 ± 0.016 vs 0.109 ± 0.017; P < 0.001). In this subgroup, GA was the only significant independent determinant of Pdimax, while BPD and the GA were significant determinants of the PTIdi.  Conclusions: Preterm infants present lower diaphragmatic strength and impaired ability to sustain the generated force over time, which renders them prone to diaphragmatic fatigue. In very preterm infants, BPD may further aggravate diaphragmatic function. What is Known: • The diaphragm of preterm infants has limited capacity to undertake the work of breathing effectively. • The maximum transdiaphragmatic pressure (a measure of diaphragmatic strength) and the pressure-time index of the diaphragm (a measure of the load-to-capacity ratio of the muscle) have not been extensively assessed in small infants. What is New: • Preterm infants have lower diaphragmatic strength and impaired ability to sustain the generated force over time, which renders them prone to diaphragmatic fatigue. • In very preterm infants, bronchopulmonary dysplasia may further impair diaphragmatic function.

To feed or not to feed during therapeutic hypothermia in asphyxiated neonates: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

The practice of withholding feed during therapeutic hypothermia (TH) in neonates with hypoxemic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is based on conventions rather than evidence. Recent studies suggest that enteral feeding might be safe during TH. We systematically compared the benefits and harms of enteral feeding in infants undergoing TH for HIE. We searched electronic databases and trial registries (MEDLINE, CINAHL, Embase, Web of Science, and CENTRAL) until December 15, 2022, for studies comparing enteral feeding and non-feeding strategies. We performed a random-effects meta-analysis using RevMan 5.4 software. The primary outcome was the incidence of stage II/III necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). Other outcomes included the incidence of any stage NEC, mortality, sepsis, feed intolerance, time to full enteral feeds, and hospital stay. Six studies ((two randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and four nonrandomized studies of intervention (NRSIs)) enrolling 3693 participants were included. The overall incidence of stage II/III NEC was very low (0.6%). There was no significant difference in the incidence of stage II/III NEC in RCTs (2 trials, 192 participants; RR, 1.20; 95% CI: 0.53 to 2.71, I2, 0%) and NRSIs (3 studies, no events in either group). In the NRSIs, infants in the enteral feeding group had significantly lower sepsis rates (four studies, 3500 participants, RR, 0.59; 95% CI: 0.51 to 0.67, I2-0%) and lower all-cause mortality (three studies, 3465 participants, RR: 0.43; 95% CI: 0.33 to 0.57, I2-0%) than the infants in the "no feeding" group. However, no significant difference in mortality was observed in RCTs (RR: 0.70; 95% CI: 0.28 to 1.74, I2-0%). Infants in the enteral feeding group achieved full enteral feeding earlier, had higher breastfeeding rates at discharge, received parenteral nutrition for a shorter duration, and had shorter hospital stays than the control group.  Conclusion: In late preterm and term infants with HIE, enteral feeding appears safe and feasible during the cooling phase of TH. However, there is insufficient evidence to guide the timing of initiation, volume, and feed advancement. What is Known: • Many neonatal units withhold enteral feeding during therapeutic hypothermia, fearing an increased risk of complications (feed intolerance and necrotizing enterocolitis). • The overall risk of necrotizing enterocolitis in late-preterm and term infants is extremely low (< 1%). What is New: • Enteral feeding during therapeutic hypothermia is safe and does not increase the risk of necrotizing enterocolitis, hypoglycemia, or feed intolerance. It may reduce the incidence of sepsis and all-cause mortality until discharge.

Stem cell-based interventions for the prevention and treatment of intraventricular haemorrhage and encephalopathy of prematurity in preterm infants.

BACKGROUND: Germinal matrix-intraventricular haemorrhage (GMH-IVH) and encephalopathy of prematurity (EoP) remain substantial issues in neonatal intensive care units worldwide. Current therapies to prevent or treat these conditions are limited. Stem cell-based therapies offer a potential therapeutic approach to repair, restore, or regenerate injured brain tissue. These preclinical findings have now culminated in ongoing human neonatal studies. This is an update of the 2019 review, which did not include EoP. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the benefits and harms of stem cell-based interventions for prevention or treatment of GM-IVH and EoP in preterm infants. SEARCH METHODS: We used standard, extensive Cochrane search methods. The latest search was April 2022. SELECTION CRITERIA: We attempted to include randomised controlled trials, quasi-randomised controlled trials, and cluster trials comparing 1. stem cell-based interventions versus control; 2. mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) of type or source versus MSCs of other type or source; 3. stem cell-based interventions other than MSCs of type or source versus stem cell-based interventions other than MSCs of other type or source; or 4. MSCs versus stem cell-based interventions other than MSCs. For prevention studies, we included extremely preterm infants (less than 28 weeks' gestation), 24 hours of age or less, without ultrasound diagnosis of GM-IVH or EoP; for treatment studies, we included preterm infants (less than 37 weeks' gestation), of any postnatal age, with ultrasound diagnosis of GM-IVH or with EoP. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We used standard Cochrane methods. Our primary outcomes were 1. all-cause neonatal mortality, 2. major neurodevelopmental disability, 3. GM-IVH, 4. EoP, and 5. extension of pre-existing non-severe GM-IVH or EoP. We planned to use GRADE to assess certainty of evidence for each outcome. MAIN RESULTS: We identified no studies that met our inclusion criteria. Three studies are currently registered and ongoing. Phase 1 trials are described in the 'Excluded studies' section. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: No evidence is currently available to evaluate the benefits and harms of stem cell-based interventions for treatment or prevention of GM-IVH or EoP in preterm infants. We identified three ongoing studies, with a sample size range from 20 to 200. In two studies, autologous cord blood mononuclear cells will be administered to extremely preterm infants via the intravenous route; in one, intracerebroventricular injection of MSCs will be administered to preterm infants up to 34 weeks' gestational age.

Probiotics to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low birth weight infants.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal dysbiosis may contribute to the pathogenesis of necrotising enterocolitis (NEC) in very preterm or very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. Dietary supplementation with probiotics to modulate the intestinal microbiome has been proposed as a strategy to reduce the risk of NEC and associated mortality and morbidity in very preterm or VLBW infants. OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of supplemental probiotics on the risk of NEC and associated mortality and morbidity in very preterm or very low birth weight infants. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, the Maternity and Infant Care database, and CINAHL from inception to July 2022. We searched clinical trials databases and conference proceedings, and examined the reference lists of retrieved articles. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs comparing probiotics with placebo or no probiotics in very preterm infants (born before 32 weeks' gestation) and VLBW infants (weighing less than 1500 g at birth). DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently evaluated risk of bias of the trials, extracted data, and synthesised effect estimates using risk ratios (RRs), risk differences (RDs), and mean differences (MDs), with associated 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The primary outcomes were NEC and all-cause mortality; secondary outcome measures were late-onset invasive infection (more than 48 hours after birth), duration of hospitalisation from birth, and neurodevelopmental impairment. We used the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of the evidence. MAIN RESULTS: We included 60 trials with 11,156 infants. Most trials were small (median sample size 145 infants). The main potential sources of bias were unclear reporting of methods for concealing allocation and masking caregivers or investigators in about half of the trials. The formulation of the probiotics varied across trials. The most common preparations contained Bifidobacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp., Saccharomyces spp., andStreptococcus spp., alone or in combination. Very preterm or very low birth weight infants Probiotics may reduce the risk of NEC (RR 0.54, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.65; I² = 17%; 57 trials, 10,918 infants; low certainty). The number needed to treat for an additional beneficial outcome (NNTB) was 33 (95% CI 25 to 50). Probiotics probably reduce mortality slightly (RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.66 to 0.90; I² = 0%; 54 trials, 10,484 infants; moderate certainty); the NNTB was 50 (95% CI 50 to 100). Probiotics probably have little or no effect on the risk of late-onset invasive infection (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.82 to 0.97; I² = 22%; 49 trials, 9876 infants; moderate certainty). Probiotics may have little or no effect on neurodevelopmental impairment (RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.26; I² = 0%; 5 trials, 1518 infants; low certainty). Extremely preterm or extremely low birth weight infants Few data were available for extremely preterm or extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants. In this population, probiotics may have little or no effect on NEC (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.69 to 1.22, I² = 0%; 10 trials, 1836 infants; low certainty), all-cause mortality (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.72 to 1.18; I² = 0%; 7 trials, 1723 infants; low certainty), or late-onset invasive infection (RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.09; I² = 0%; 7 trials, 1533 infants; low certainty). No trials provided data for measures of neurodevelopmental impairment in extremely preterm or ELBW infants. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Given the low to moderate certainty of evidence for the effects of probiotic supplements on the risk of NEC and associated morbidity and mortality for very preterm or VLBW infants, and particularly for extremely preterm or ELBW infants, there is a need for further large, high-quality trials to provide evidence of sufficient validity and applicability to inform policy and practice.

Prebiotics to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low birth weight infants.

BACKGROUND: Dietary supplementation with prebiotic oligosaccharides to modulate the intestinal microbiome has been proposed as a strategy to reduce the risk of necrotising enterocolitis (NEC) and associated mortality and morbidity in very preterm or very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. OBJECTIVES: To assess the benefits and harms of enteral supplementation with prebiotics (versus placebo or no treatment) for preventing NEC and associated morbidity and mortality in very preterm or VLBW infants. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase, the Maternity and Infant Care database and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), from the earliest records to July 2022. We searched clinical trials databases and conference proceedings, and examined the reference lists of retrieved articles. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs comparing prebiotics with placebo or no prebiotics in very preterm (< 32 weeks' gestation) or VLBW (< 1500 g) infants. The primary outcomes were NEC and all-cause mortality, and the secondary outcomes were late-onset invasive infection, duration of hospitalisation since birth, and neurodevelopmental impairment. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors separately evaluated risk of bias of the trials, extracted data, and synthesised effect estimates using risk ratio (RR), risk difference (RD), and mean difference (MD), with associated 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The primary outcomes of interest were NEC and all-cause mortality; our secondary outcome measures were late-onset (> 48 hours after birth) invasive infection, duration of hospitalisation, and neurodevelopmental impairment. We used the GRADE approach to assess the level of certainty of the evidence. MAIN RESULTS: We included seven trials in which a total of 705 infants participated. All the trials were small (mean sample size 100). Lack of clarity on methods to conceal allocation and mask caregivers or investigators were potential sources of bias in three of the trials. The studied prebiotics were fructo- and galacto-oligosaccharides, inulin, and lactulose, typically administered daily with enteral feeds during birth hospitalisation. Meta-analyses of data from seven trials (686 infants) suggest that prebiotics may result in little or no difference in NEC (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.60 to 1.56; RD none fewer per 1000, 95% CI 50 fewer to 40 more; low-certainty evidence), all-cause mortality (RR 0.43, 95% CI 0.20 to 0.92; 40 per 1000 fewer, 95% CI 70 fewer to none fewer; low-certainty evidence), or late-onset invasive infection (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.60 to 1.06; 50 per 1000 fewer, 95% CI 100 fewer to 10 more; low-certainty evidence) prior to hospital discharge. The certainty of this evidence is low because of concerns about the risk of bias in some trials and the imprecision of the effect size estimates. The data available from one trial provided only very low-certainty evidence about the effect of prebiotics on measures of neurodevelopmental impairment (Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) Mental Development Index score < 85: RR 0.84, 95% CI 0.25 to 2.90; very low-certainty evidence; BSID Psychomotor Development Index score < 85: RR 0.24, 95% 0.03 to 2.00; very low-certainty evidence; cerebral palsy: RR 0.35, 95% CI 0.01 to 8.35; very low-certainty evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The available trial data provide low-certainty evidence about the effects of prebiotics on the risk of NEC, all-cause mortality before discharge, and invasive infection, and very low-certainty evidence about the effect on neurodevelopmental impairment for very preterm or VLBW infants. Our confidence in the effect estimates is limited; the true effects may be substantially different. Large, high-quality trials are needed to provide evidence of sufficient validity to inform policy and practice decisions.

Routine monitoring of gastric residual for prevention of necrotising enterocolitis in preterm infants.

BACKGROUND: Routine monitoring of gastric residual in preterm infants on gavage feeds is a common practice used to guide initiation and advancement of feeds. It is believed that an increase in or an altered gastric residual may be predictive of necrotising enterocolitis (NEC). Withholding monitoring of gastric residual may take away the early indicator and thus may increase the risk of NEC. However, routine monitoring of gastric residual as a guide, in the absence of uniform standards, may lead to unnecessary delay in initiation and advancement of feeds and hence might result in a delay in establishing full enteral feeds. This in turn may increase the duration of total parenteral nutrition (TPN) and central venous line usage, increasing the risk of associated complications. Furthermore, delays in establishing full enteral feeds increase the risk of extrauterine growth restriction and neurodevelopmental impairment. OBJECTIVES: • To assess the efficacy and safety of routine monitoring versus no monitoring of gastric residual in preterm infants • To assess the efficacy and safety of routine monitoring of gastric residual based on two different criteria for interrupting feeds or decreasing feed volume in preterm infants SEARCH METHODS: We conducted searches in Cochrane CENTRAL via CRS, Ovid MEDLINE, Embase and CINAHL in February 2022. We also searched clinical trials databases, conference proceedings, and the reference lists of retrieved articles for randomised controlled trials (RCTs), quasi- and cluster-RCTs. SELECTION CRITERIA: We selected RCTs that compared routine monitoring versus no monitoring of gastric residual and trials that used two different criteria for gastric residual to interrupt feeds in preterm infants. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two authors independently assessed trial eligibility, risk of bias and extracted data. We analysed treatment effects in individual trials and reported risk ratio (RR) for dichotomous data, and mean difference (MD) for continuous data, with respective 95% confidence intervals (CI). We calculated the number needed to treat for an additional beneficial/harmful outcome (NNTB/NNTH) for dichotomous outcomes with significant results. We used GRADE to assess the certainty of evidence. MAIN RESULTS: We included five studies (423 infants) in this updated review. Routine monitoring versus no routine monitoring of gastric residual in preterm infants Four RCTs with 336 preterm infants met the inclusion criteria for this comparison. Three studies were performed in infants with birth weight of < 1500 g, while one study included infants with birth weight between 750 g and 2000 g. The trials were unmasked but were otherwise of good methodological quality. Routine monitoring of gastric residual:  - probably has little or no effect on the risk of NEC (RR 1.08, 95% CI 0.46 to 2.57; 334 participants, 4 studies; moderate-certainty evidence); - probably increases the time to establish full enteral feeds (MD 3.14 days, 95% CI 1.93 to 4.36; 334 participants, 4 studies; moderate-certainty evidence); - may increase the time to regain birth weight (MD 1.70 days, 95% CI 0.01 to 3.39; 80 participants, 1 study; low-certainty evidence);  - may increase the number of infants with feed interruption episodes (RR 2.21, 95% CI 1.53 to 3.20; NNTH 3, 95% CI 2 to 5; 191 participants, 3 studies; low-certainty evidence);  - probably increases the number of TPN days (MD 2.57 days, 95% CI 1.20 to 3.95; 334 participants, 4 studies; moderate-certainty evidence); - probably increases the risk of invasive infection (RR 1.50, 95% CI 1.02 to 2.19; NNTH 10, 95% CI 5 to 100; 334 participants, 4 studies; moderate-certainty evidence); - may result in little or no difference in all-cause mortality before hospital discharge (RR 2.14, 95% CI 0.77 to 5.97; 273 participants, 3 studies; low-certainty evidence). Quality and volume of gastric residual compared to quality of gastric residual alone for feed interruption in preterm infants One trial with 87 preterm infants met the inclusion criteria for this comparison. The trial included infants with 1500 g to 2000 g birth weight.  Using two different criteria of gastric residual for feed interruption: - may result in little or no difference in the incidence of NEC (RR 5.35, 95% CI 0.26 to 108.27; 87 participants; low-certainty evidence);  - may result in little or no difference in time to establish full enteral feeds (MD -0.10 days, 95% CI -0.91 to 0.71; 87 participants; low-certainty evidence); - may result in little or no difference in time to regain birth weight (MD 1.00 days, 95% CI -0.37 to 2.37; 87 participants; low-certainty evidence); - may result in little or no difference in number of TPN days (MD 0.80 days, 95% CI -0.78 to 2.38; 87 participants; low-certainty evidence); - may result in little or no difference in the risk of invasive infection (RR 5.35, 95% CI 0.26 to 108.27; 87 participants; low-certainty evidence); - may result in little or no difference in all-cause mortality before hospital discharge (RR 3.21, 95% CI 0.13 to 76.67; 87 participants; low-certainty evidence).  - we are uncertain about the effect of using two different criteria of gastric residual on the risk of feed interruption episodes (RR 3.21, 95% CI 0.13 to 76.67; 87 participants; very low-certainty evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Moderate-certainty evidence suggests routine monitoring of gastric residual has little or no effect on the incidence of NEC. Moderate-certainty evidence suggests monitoring gastric residual probably increases the time to establish full enteral feeds, the number of TPN days and the risk of invasive infection. Low-certainty evidence suggests monitoring gastric residual may increase the time to regain birth weight and the number of feed interruption episodes, and may have little or no effect on all-cause mortality before hospital discharge. Further RCTs are warranted to assess the effect on long-term growth and neurodevelopmental outcomes.