Arterial and venous supply of the Harderian gland in hens.

Background: The Harderian gland in domestic birds is a major paraocular excretory gland that has an important role in tear production as well as in the immune protection of the conjunctiva surface. Aim: The aim of this research was to investigate the arterial and venous supply of the gland in hens and provide valuable and useful information for future research. Methods: The research was conducted on 26 adult hens, provenience of Lohmann Brown. For the identification and determination of blood vessels, we used the vascular corrosion cast technique in conjunction with the transmission electron microscope (TEM). Results: The casts showed that the gland receives the arterial supply via branches of a. ophthalmotemporalis and a. nasalis communis and these arteries are accompanied by the corresponding veins. Ultrastructural analyses showed the presence of fenestrated capillaries, which indicates the possibility for permeability of larger molecules. Conclusion: The present research gives important and detailed information about the arterial and venous supply of the Harderian gland in hens that may serve as guidelines for future vascular and morphological investigations.

Plasma cell proliferation in the chicken harderian gland.

Studies to examine the percentages of proliferating plasma cells (PPC) in the Harderian gland (HG) were carried out in chicks between 5 and 12 weeks of age. Two methods, 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdUrd) incorporation into DNA and flow cytometric analysis of propidium iodide (PI) stained cells, were employed in control and emetine dihydrochloride treated birds. Flow cytometric analysis of PI stained cells showed the percentages of plasma cells in S phase were highest between 6 and 8 weeks of age. After this period of time, the number of S phase plasma cells decreased and remained low through 12 weeks of age. The lowest percentages of plasma cells in G0 + G1 were found at 6 and 8 weeks of age, and all ages had equal percentages of plasma cells in G2 + M phase. After administration of the protein synthesis inhibitor emetine dihydrochloride a common pattern of plasma cell depletion and repopulation in the HG was observed. At 3 and 5 days post-treatment the plasma cell population in the gland decreased and by 7 days post-treatment repopulation of the gland with plasma cells had taken place. Anti-BrdUrd staining of frozen sections revealed that the number of PPC were decreased at 3 days after emetine treatment but were as high as, or higher than, controls at 5 and 7 days post-treatment. Flow cytometric analysis indicated that some birds were more severely affected by emetine. Namely, the percentages of plasma cells in S phase were lower at 3 and 5 days post-treatment. Even though most birds were severely affected by emetine treatment during the experiments, they possessed a cell population with the proliferative capacity to quickly repopulate the HG by 7 days post-emetine treatment.

Nitric oxide as a mediator of parasympathetic vasodilation in ocular and extraocular tissues in the rabbit.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate in rabbits the relationship between nitric oxide and the noncholinergic vasodilation caused by facial nerve stimulation in the eye and some extraocular tissues. METHODS: Uveal vascular resistance was determined by measuring simultaneously the flow from a cannulated vortex vein with intraocular pressure and arterial blood pressure recordings. The local blood flow in different parts of the eye (iris, ciliary body, choroid, and retina), eyelids, nictitating membrane, Harderian gland, and lacrimal gland was determined using radioactive microspheres. The effects of facial nerve stimulation, at different frequencies, were examined before and after the administration of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors. RESULTS: In the experiments with direct determination of uveal blood flow, stimulation of the facial nerve caused a frequency-dependent decrease in uveal vascular resistance, indicating vasodilation. This effect was reduced or abolished by NOS inhibition at low frequencies but was unaffected at high frequencies. Determination of regional blood flow, with radioactive microspheres, showed that the stimulation increased local blood flow in all parts of the uvea. Compared to the nonstimulated control side, stimulation at 2 Hz increased choroidal blood flow by 89% +/- 12% before NOS inhibition and by 45% +/- 10% after NOS inhibition, a difference of 44% +/- 77% (n = 9; P < or = 0.05). Iris and ciliary body vasodilation appeared to be equally reduced. In eyelids, Harderian gland, and lacrimal gland, the vasodilation elicited by stimulation at 2 Hz was abolished almost completely by NOS inhibition. The vasodilation in most of the extraocular tissues was reduced significantly by NOS inhibition at 5 Hz, with only a slight reduction in the choroid, iris, and ciliary body. Retinal blood flow also was significantly increased by facial nerve stimulation at 2 Hz and 5 Hz. The increase in retinal blood flow appeared to be more sensitive to NOS inhibition than the increase in uveal blood flow. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the formation of nitric oxide plays an important role in the uveal, retinal, and extraocular vasodilation brought about by facial nerve stimulation at low frequencies. At high frequencies, other neurotransmitters also seem to be involved.

Invasive processes in the normal Harderian gland of Syrian hamster.

In this contribution we will pay special attention to several morphological findings that we can observe, under some circumstances, in the normal Harderian gland of the Syrian hamster. The accumulation of porphyrins in this gland results in mitochondrial damage and extensive cell death. Many damaged cells are secreted into the lumen of the tubule-alveoli, but most of them seem to produce an invasive process that even affects the vascular components of the gland. In this way, many blood vessels are invaded and appear partially filled with the invasive mass, which sometimes totally occludes the lumen of the vessels. We have also observed other surprising features related to a special kind of activity in certain secretory cells. Such activity results in a peculiar "segregation" of a cytoplasmic fragment, containing the nucleus. The affected cells seem to gather up their cytoplasm and nucleus towards the basal zone, while the rest of the cell, including practically the whole amount of lipid droplets, is relegated to the vicinity of the lumen. All these phenomena seem finally to result in the detachment of some clusters, composed of a limited number of cells, which display a basophilic cytoplasm practically free of lipid droplets.

Non-adrenergic sympathetic vasoconstriction in the eye and some other facial tissues in the rabbit.

The effects of unilateral sympathetic nerve stimulation (SNS) on regional blood flow in the rabbit were studied with radioactive microspheres. SNS at 10 or 4 Hz caused an approximately 60% reduction in choroidal blood flow, which was partly resistant to alpha-adrenoceptor blockade with phenoxybenzamine. The vasoconstriction evoked by SNS at 2 Hz was completely abolished by alpha-adrenoceptor blockade. A similar response was seen in the iris, ciliary body, masseter muscle and lacrimal gland. In the harderian gland, however, SNS (2 Hz) after alpha-adrenoceptor blockade caused a significant reduction in blood flow. In the salivary glands, combined beta- and alpha-adrenoceptor blockade with propranolol and phenoxybenzamine revealed a slight non-adrenergic vasoconstriction during SNS at 10 Hz; however, the blood flow was significantly increased during SNS at 4 and 2 Hz following alpha-adrenoceptor blockade. These results indicate that there is a frequency-dependent, non-adrenergic component in the sympathetic vasoconstriction of the eye and several facial tissues. In the salivary glands, beta-adrenoceptor-mediated vasodilatation tends to mask a non-adrenergic vasoconstriction.

Ultrastructure of the blood vessels in the Harderian gland of the hamster (Mesocricetus auratus): existence of sinusoids.

The Harderian gland blood supply of female and male hamsters was studied using light and electron microscopy. A profuse vascularization surrounding secretory acini was observed. Among the blood vessels, the existence of large and irregular sinusoidal capillaries was apparent. These sinusoids appeared in close association to the basal aspect of the secretory cells. Typical, small, fenestrated capillaries were also observed within the connective tissue. The existence of this particular vascularization together with other morphological features of the secretory cell basal pole suggest a possible endocrine function of these orbital glands.

The Harderian gland of the rodent Octodon degus: a structural and ultrastructural study.

Harderian glands from male and female Octodon degus were examined by light and transmission electron microscopy. Two types of secretory units, designated as type I and type II, were observed. Type I secretory units comprise three types of epithelial cells: Cells packed with numerous lipid droplets (Type a), cells with few lipid droplets (Type b), and cells with numerous mitochondria and a very well developed Golgi complex (Type c). Type II secretory units were found exclusively in female Octodon degus and comprised a type of secretory cells which contained numerous basophilic granules in their apical cytoplasm. In addition, in female Octodon degus, clusters of lymphocyte-like cells and plasmatic cells were also observed. The vascularization of the gland appeared very well developed. The most unique feature of the blood supply was the existence of large sinusoidal vessels extremely variable in shape. In the medullar region, the sinsoidal wall adapts its contour to that of the tubuloalveolar surface. Unmyelinated and myelinated nerve fibers were found in the connective stroma of the gland.

Magnetic resonance imaging of the Harderian gland in piglets.

The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the value and effectiveness of functional and morphological magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), in order to assess the extent of brain injury in a hypoxic-ischaemic piglet model, and further to validate that the ischaemic injury was successfully induced. In this way, we also characterized the Harderian gland. MRI was performed at 1.5 T in anaesthetized piglets (n = 10, 12-36 h of age). Magnetic resonance perfusion and diffusion imaging were performed at different time points, before, during and after the induction of hypoxia-ischaemia. The effects following bilateral clamping of the carotid arteries were also assessed by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography. Morphological assessment included T1- and T2-weighted imaging, and fat-suppressed T1-weighted imaging before and after contrast medium enhancement. Morphological MRI revealed a prominent, well-defined structure located at the eyeball. Magnetic resonance angiography reconstructed with volume rendering showed this structure to be partially enclosed by large venous sinuses. At dissection, when compared with the magnetic resonance images, the deep gland of the third eyelid, the Harderian gland, corresponded to this structure both in topography and in size. By contrast, the lacrimal gland proper presented as a small, soft and pale structure that was difficult to distinguish from the surrounding connective tissue. At histological examination, the Harderian gland consisted mainly of compact areas of tubuloacinar glands with abundant eosinophilic granules. The present MRI demonstration of the Harderian gland was an accidental finding during an investigation to assess the extent of brain injury in a hypoxic-ischaemic piglet model. The combination of MRI and histology made it possible to detect and describe the Harderian gland in pig. It has generally been studied in rodents and lower vertebrates and is reported to possess various endocrine and exocrine functions.

Immunological tolerance to many self epitopes may be unnecessary.

The demonstration of the existence of antigenic mimicry suggests that immunological tolerance to self antigens may be an insufficient basis for distinguishing self from non-self. However, some data suggest that even in the absence of tolerance most self epitopes would not immunize the host and that tolerance to all self epitopes may, therefore, not be necessary for the prevention of autoimmune disease.

Histology and ultrastructure of the the harderian glands - accessory lacrimal gland - of the chicken.

The Harderian gland is an exocrine gland located in the orbit of the chicken. In the stroma of the folds, an extreme amount of plasma cells can be observed. Electron-microscopic observations revealed that the surface epithelium over the margin of the folds is joined up to deeper epithelial cells with processes rich in tonofibrils and the space among them is filled with plasma cells. The basement membrane separating the surface epithelium from the underlying connective tissue is lacking in these areas, therefore, plasma cells are in direct contact with epithelial cells. A fine network of reticular fibrils can be found inside the folds and reticulum cell-like elements with long processes are intercalated among the plasma cells. This morphology resembles that of the lymphoepithelial organs. Based on this similarity the lymphoepithelial character and a possible immunological function of the Harderian gland is supposed.

Vasomotor effects of facial nerve stimulation: noncholinergic vasodilation in the eye.

The effect of facial nerve stimulation on ocular blood flow was studied in rabbits. The intracranial part of the facial nerve was stimulated electrically and the regional blood flow was measured with labelled microspheres. Effects on the intraocular pressure were determined in a separate series of experiments. Stimulation increased choroidal blood flow by about 200%. The blood flow of the iris and the ciliary processes also increased. The blood flow of the eyelids and the nictitating membrane increased by approximately 1000%, and the blood flow of Harder's gland increased by about 200%. The blood flow of the tongue and the submandibular gland also increased. The increase in the uveal blood flow could not be abolished by a cholinergic or ganglionic blockade. Ganglionic blockade abolished most of the increase in the blood flow of the eyelids, nictitating membrane and Harder's gland; the cholinergic blockade seemed less effective. The intraocular pressure increased with a mean value of 6 mmHg during optimal (20-30 Hz) stimulation. The increase could not be prevented by cholinergic blockade. Much of the increase in uveal blood flow seemed to be caused by stimulation of unconventional nerves. It is suggested that these nerves may be peptidergic using VIP as a transmitter and lacking a hexamethonium sensitive synapse between the site of stimulation and the eye. Their nature--afferent or efferent--remains unknown. A great part of the increase in blood flow of the eyelids, nictitating membrane and Harder's gland seemed to be due to other mechanisms involving nerves with a peripheral synapse.

Innervation of the rat Harderian gland by adrenergic and cholinergic nerve fibres.

The innervation of the rat Harderian gland was studied using histochemical methods for catecholamines and acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Selective denervations were performed to investigate the neural connections of this gland with various ganglia. Light microscopically the AChE-positive nerves seemed to run as thick bundles in the intertubular connective tissue. These bundles sent finer branches around the acini. The blood vessels, localized in the connective tissue septa, were surrounded by a dense plexus of AChE-containing fibres. By electron microscopy, the AChE-positive fibres were seen to terminate near the myoepithelial cells surrounding secretory cells. These fibres were also observed in contact with the blood vessels and occasionally close to the secretory cells. Fluorescent adrenergic nerves surrounded the blood vessels. Some fibres were also observed in the interlobular tissue. All the AChE-containing nerves degenerated after cutting the zygomatic nerve. On the other hand, removal of the ciliary ganglion or the superior cervical ganglion, or stereotactic coagulation of the ophthalmic nerve did not affect these nerves. The fluorescent adrenergic fibres disappeared following both removal of the superior cervical ganglion and coagulation of the ophthalmic nerve. These fibres were intact after removal of the ciliary ganglion.