Genetic history of Bashkirian Mari and Southern Mansi ethnic groups in the Ural region.

According to genetic studies, the Hungarian Y-chromosomal gene pool significantly differs from other Uralic-speaking populations. Hungarians possess a significant frequency of haplogroup R1a-Z280 and a low frequency of haplogroup N-Tat, which is common among other Uralic-speaking populations. Based on this evidence, we further worked to define the links between the linguistically related Hungarian, Mansi and Bashkirian Mari populations. Samples were collected from 45 Bashkirian Mari and 36 Southern Mansi males in the Ural region. We analyzed male-specific markers including 23 STRs and 36 SNPs, which reflect past and recent paternal genetic history. We found that the haplogroup distribution of the two population samples showed high genetic similarity to each other except for the N-Tat* and R1a-Z93 haplogroups in the Bashkirian Mari males. On the MDS plots constructed from Fst- and Rst-genetic distances, the Bashkirian Mari and Southern Mansi population groups showed close genetic affinities with the Khanty, Northern Mansi, Mari, and Estonian populations. For phylogenetic studies, networks were constructed for the most frequent haplogroups in both populations together with other Eurasian populations. Both populations shared common haplotypes within haplogroups R1a-Z280 or N-L1034 with Hungarian speakers, suggesting a common paternal genetic footprint that arose in prehistoric or historic times. Overall, the Hungarian, Mansi, and Bashkirian Mari populations have a much more complex genetic history than the traditional linguistic model or history would suggest. Further studies are needed to clarify the common genetic profiles may have been acquired directly or indirectly during the more or less known their history.

Observations on Osteoporosis in Three Generations of Descendants of Holocaust Survivors.

BACKGROUND: Throughout history, studies on episodes of famine have led to the discovery of metabolic abnormalities and hormonal aberrations as well as an increased incidence of cancer and mental health conditions. Starvation during early life is thought to nfluence the programming of childhood and adult bone metabolism, which may result in poor bone health in later life. This observational case series includes a small group (with no control group) of famine-exposed Holocaust survivors and their descendants. We proposed an investigational mechanism to determine any association between starvation and osteoporosis, both in the individual survivors and in their descendants.

Generalized Procrustes analysis of an ontogenetic series of modified crania: Evaluating the technique of modification in the Migration Period of Europe (4th-7th century AD).

OBJECTIVES: The arrival of the Huns into Europe in the fourth century AD increased the occurrence of intentional cranial modification among European nomads. It has been postulated that the Huns used a two-bandage cranial binding technique to differentiate themselves from surrounding nomadic groups, including those from Georgia. This study examines this hypothesis by comparing Migration Period (4th to 7th century AD) juvenile crania, which retain strong impressions of bindings, with adult modified crania from Hungary and Georgia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twelve surface landmarks and 251 semi-landmarks were used to study ontogenetic trajectories in 9 juvenile and 16 adult modified skulls from 8 Hungarian sites and 21 adult skulls from two Georgian sites. Generalized Procrustes analysis, linear regression of Procrutes distance on dental age and log centroid size, and warping the principal components (PCs) in shape space helped to identify cranial shape changes. RESULTS: The PCs provide significant separation of the juvenile and adult groups from Georgia and Hungary. Variation in modified cranial shape was limited in Hungary compared to Georgia. There was stronger correlation between juvenile and adult modified cranial shape in Hungary than in Georgia. Warping along the first axis reveals the trajectory from marked flattening of the frontal and occipital regions in juveniles to diminished flattening in the same regions in adult crania, corresponding with one binding. Another depression extending from the post-bregmatic region to the temporal region, similarly strong in juveniles but diminishing in adults, marks the second binding. DISCUSSION: Hungarian crania were modified with two bindings with limited shape variation, whereas the Georgian crania had greater variation in shape being also modified with antero-posterior bindings. The findings from this study alongside contemporary historical sources help to understand the role of intentional cranial modification as a mark of social identity among nomads in the Migration Period of Europe.

A craniometric analysis of early modern Romania and Hungary: The roles of migration and conversion in shaping European Ottoman population history.

OBJECTIVES: Debate persists regarding the biological makeup of European Ottoman communities settled during the expansion of the Ottoman Empire during the 16th and 17th centuries, and the roles of conversion and migration in shaping demography and population history. The aim of this study was to perform an assessment of the biological affinities of three European Ottoman series based on craniometric data. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Craniometric data collected from three Ottoman series from Hungary and Romania were compared to European and Anatolian comparative series, selected to represent biological affinity representative of historically recorded migration and conversion influences. Sex-separated samples were analyzed using D2 -matrices, along with principal coordinates and PERMANOVA analyses to investigate biological affinities. Discriminant function analysis was employed to assign Ottoman individuals to two potential classes: European or Anatolian. RESULTS: Affinity analyses show larger than expected biological differences between males and females within each of the Ottoman communities. Discriminant function analyses show that the majority of Ottoman individuals could be classified as either European or Anatolian with a high probability. Moreover, location within Europe proved influential, as the Ottomans from a location of more geopolitical importance (Budapest) diverged from more hinterland communities in terms of biological affinity patterns. DISCUSSION: The results suggest that male and female Ottomans may possess distinct population histories, with males and females divergent from each other in terms of their biological affinities. The Ottoman communities appear diverse in terms of constituting a mix of peoples from different biological backgrounds. The greater distances between sexes from the same community, and the differences between communities, may be evidence that the processes of migration and conversion impacted individual people and groups diversely.

Distribution Characteristics and Combined Effect of Polymorphisms Affecting Alcohol Consumption Behaviour in the Hungarian General and Roma Populations.

AIMS: Harmful alcohol drinking habits, even among Roma children and adolescents, are more common than in the majority population. The aim of the study was to evaluate the genetic susceptibility of Roma to hazardous alcohol consumption compared to the Hungarian general population. METHODS: A total of 1273 samples from the population of segregated Hungarian Roma colonies and 2967 samples from the Hungarian general population were genotyped for 25 polymorphisms. Differences in genotype and allele distributions were investigated. Genetic risk scores (GRS) were generated to estimate the joint effect of individual single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). After unweighted and weighted GRS were calculated the distribution of scores in study populations was compared. RESULTS: The allele frequencies differed significantly between the study populations for 17 SNPs (P < 0.002), but the genetic alterations that predispose to or protect against harmful alcohol consumption were not overrepresented in the Roma population. The distribution of unweighted GRS in Roma population was left shifted compared to general population (P = 0.0013). The median weighted genetic risk score was lower among the subjects of Roma population compared to the subjects of general population (0.53 vs 0.65, P = 3.33 × 10-27) even after adjustment for confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in alcohol consumption habits between the Hungarian Roma and Hungarian general populations do not appear to be linked to genetic constitution, this behaviour may occur as a result of different cultural values and environmental exposures. Population-based measures to tackle the fundamental drivers of consumption, which take account of cultural acceptability, are needed to reduce harmful alcohol consumption in the Roma population.

Delivery of cardio-metabolic preventive services to Hungarian Roma of different socio-economic strata.

BACKGROUND: Because the cardiovascular mortality in Hungary is high, particularly among the socio-economically deprived and the Roma, it is implied that primary health care (PHC) has a limited ability to exploit the opportunities of evidence-based preventions, and it may contribute to social health inequalities. OBJECTIVES: Our study investigated the underuse of PHC preventive services. METHODS: Random samples of adults aged 21-64 years free of hypertension and diabetes mellitus were surveyed with participation rate of 97.7% in a cross-sectional study. Data from 2199 adults were collected on socio-demographic status, ethnicity, lifestyle and history of cardio-metabolic preventive service use. Delivery rates were calculated for those aged 21-44 years and those aged 45-64 years, and the influence of socio-demographic variables was determined using multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: Delivery rates varied between 12.79% and 99.06%, and the majority was far from 100%. Although most preventive service use was independent of education, younger participants with vocational educations underutilized problematic drinking (P = 0.011) and smoking (P = 0.027) assessments, and primary or less educated underutilized blood glucose (P = 0.001) and serum cholesterol (P = 0.005) checks. Health care measures of each lifestyle assessment (P nutrition = 0.032; P smoking = 0.021; P alcohol = 0.029) and waist circumference measurement (P = 0.047) were much less frequently used among older Roma. The blood glucose check (P = 0.001) and family history assessment (P = 0.043) were less utilized among Roma. CONCLUSIONS: The Hungarian PHC underutilizes the cardio-metabolic prevention contributing to the avoidable mortality, not generating considerably health inequalities by level of education, but contributing to the bad health status among the Roma.

A unique LAMB3 splice-site mutation with founder effect from the Balkans causes lethal epidermolysis bullosa in several European countries.

BACKGROUND: We have encountered repeated cases of recessive lethal generalized severe (Herlitz-type) junctional epidermolysis bullosa (JEB gen sev) in infants born to Hungarian Roma parents residing in a small region of Hungary. OBJECTIVES: To identify the disease-causing mutation and to investigate the genetic background of its unique carrier group. METHODS: The LAMB3 gene was analysed in peripheral-blood genomic DNA samples, and the pathological consequences of the lethal defect were confirmed by cutaneous LAMB3cDNA sequencing. A median joining haplotype network within the Y chromosome H1a-M82 haplogroup of individuals from the community was constructed, and LAMB3 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) patterns were also determined. RESULTS: An unconventional intronic splice-site mutation (LAMB3, c.1133-22G>A) was identified. Thirty of 64 voluntarily screened Roma from the closed community carried the mutation, but none of the 306 Roma from other regions of the country did. The age of the mutation was estimated to be 548 ± 222 years. Within the last year, more patients with JEB gen sev carrying the same unusual mutation have been identified in three unrelated families, all immigrants from the Balkans. Two were compound heterozygous newborns, in Germany and Italy, and one homozygous newborn died in France. Only the French family recognized their Roma background. LAMB3SNP haplotyping confirmed the link between the apparently unrelated Hungarian, German and Italian male cases, but could not verify the same background in the female newborn from France. CONCLUSIONS: The estimated age of the mutation corresponds to the time period when Roma were wandering in the Balkans.

Prevalence and predictors of anaemia in Romanian infants 6-23 months old.

BACKGROUND: Anaemia is a public health problem that can lead to a variety of detrimental effects on physical and neurodevelopment in young children. The present study explored the epidemiology of anaemia among infants in Romania, identified risk factors and created a model for predicting it. METHODS: Data from 1532 infants aged 6-24 months were selected from a larger nationally representative cross-sectional survey. Demographic predictor variables and haemoglobin concentration were extant variables in the data set. Multiple logistic regression was used to determine the best predictors of anaemia. RESULTS: Overall, 46% of 6-24 month olds in the sample had anaemia (Hb < 11.0 g/dl). A variety of risk factors were associated with significantly greater odds of anaemia, but a five-factor model best predicted it (67.9% accuracy). These predictors included being male, living in a rural area, being third born or later, being a Hungarian and living in the South, South-West or West region of Romania. CONCLUSIONS: While data indicate a modest decrease in anaemia from earlier Romanian studies, it remains a significant problem. Models like this one have the potential to improve identification and treatment of anaemia in young children.

Acral keratoses and squamous-cell carcinomas likely associated with arsenic exposure.

Chronic arsenic exposure is known to inducepunctate keratoses with an increased risk ofprimary squamous-cell carcinoma. Drinking wateris currently the major source of arsenic exposureworldwide and is considered one of the mostsubstantial environmental carcinogens. We describethe case of a 61-year-old Hungarian woman withscattered, acral, hyperkeratotic papules and a historyof five palmoplantar squamous-cell carcinomasas well as two other extremity non-melanomaskin cancers. Prior to immigration, she had livedin a county of Southern Hungary that is known tohave elevated concentrations of inorganic arsenicin the drinking water above the World HealthOrganization's current maximum threshold forsafety. To date, this report is the first to describethe phenomenon of palmoplantar squamouscellcarcinomas in a patient from this region andunderscores the importance of vigilant screening inthose individuals who have spent substantial time inhigh-risk regions internationally and domestically.

Artificially deformed crania from the Hun-Germanic Period (5th-6th century ad) in northeastern Hungary: historical and morphological analysis.

From an anthropological point of view, artificial deformation of the cranial shape in newborns is one of the most interesting human customs, which has been recorded in all continents and in different cultures. However, the main goals of this procedure were basically the same everywhere; that is, to distinguish certain groups of people from others and to indicate the social status of individuals. In the Carpathian Basin all artificially deformed skulls are dated to the late Iron Age, especially to the early Migration Period. The authors examined 9 artificially deformed skulls from the Hun-Germanic Period (5th-6th century ad) excavated from two cemeteries in the northeastern part of the Great Hungarian Plain (Hungary). The extent and the type of the deformation as well as the technique were determined in each case. The authors also attempt to shed light on the probable origin and the historical context of the custom practiced in the Carpathian Basin (Hungary), relying on the anthropological and historical literature on the Hun-Germanic and preceding periods. It seems possible that this custom, which is associated with the finds in the Carpathian Basin, first appeared in the Kalmykia steppe, later in the Crimea, from where it spread to Central and Western Europe by way of the Hun migration. Neither the cranial find described presently nor the special literature on the subject furnish convincing evidence that the cranial deformation resulted in any chronic neurological disorder.

Reducing aggressive intergroup action tendencies: effects of intergroup contact via perceived intergroup threat.

Two studies tested the prediction that more positive intergroup contact would be associated with reduced aggressive intergroup action tendencies, an effect predicted to occur indirectly via reduced intergroup threat perceptions, and over and above well-established effects of contact on intergroup attitudes. Study 1, using data based on a cross-section of the general population of eight European countries (France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, and the UK; N = 7,042), examined this hypothesis in the context of aggressive action tendencies towards immigrants. Study 2, using longitudinal data obtained from a general population sample in Northern Ireland, considered effects on aggressive action tendencies between ethno-religious groups in conflict. Both studies confirmed our predictions, showing that while perceived threat was associated with greater intergroup aggressive tendencies, positive intergroup contact was indirectly associated with reduced aggressive action tendencies, via reduced intergroup threat. Findings are discussed in terms of the theoretical contributions of this research for understanding the relationship between intergroup contact and intergroup aggression.

Fostering inclusivity: The impact of cosmopolitan orientation and European attachment on attitudes toward non-Western immigrants.

This paper examines the impact of different types of national and European identity-glorification and attachment-on attitudes toward diverse outgroups, centering on the role of cosmopolitan orientation as a mediator. In Study 1 (N = 342), both national and European attachments positively correlated with cosmopolitan orientation, subsequently influencing attitudes toward non-Western international students. Notably, national and European glorification also significantly impacted attitudes but in a negative manner, with their effects mediated through cosmopolitan orientation. The results of Study 2 (N = 346) were more nuanced: European attachment positively correlated with cosmopolitan orientation, which in turn had a positive indirect effect on attitudes toward Middle Eastern and Asian people living in Hungary. However, it was only national glorification, not national attachment, that exhibited a significant negative indirect effect through cosmopolitan orientation on these attitudes. These findings illuminate the multifaceted ways in which distinct forms of identity, filtered through the lens of cosmopolitan orientation, shape attitudes toward outgroups. They underscore the potential of cosmopolitan orientation in promoting inclusivity and suggest avenues for future research to further understand and enhance intergroup relations.

Individual and parental factors related to meaning in life among Hungarian minority adolescents from Romania.

Understanding how adolescents achieve meaning in life has important implications for their psychological development. A social cognitive model of meaning development was tested by assessing psychological (self-efficacy, self-regulation and social comparison) and parental (parental responsiveness, demandingness, and social support) variables in a sample of 1944 adolescents (aged 15-19 years; 47.8% males) from secondary schools of the Middle Transylvanian Region, Romania. Both psychological and parental factors were significantly related to meaning in life. For both boys and girls, self-efficacy, self-regulation, and maternal responsiveness related positively with meaning in life, and paternal demandingness related inversely to meaning in life. However, social comparison related positively to meaning only among boys, and paternal responsiveness related positively to meaning only among girls. Results point to a possible meaning-supporting role played by social cognitive variables, as well as parental autonomy support. The gender differences observed here suggest that existing theories of meaning development may need to be elaborated to include family of origin and gender.

HVS-I polymorphism screening of ancient human mitochondrial DNA provides evidence for N9a discontinuity and East Asian haplogroups in the Neolithic Hungary.

Analysis of mitochondrial mutations in the HVS-I region is an effective method for ancient human populational studies. Discontinuous haplotype data between the first farmers and contemporary Europeans has been described before. Our contribution is based on a survey initiated on the Neolithic skeletons from Hungarian archaeological sites in the Alföld. This Lowland, the Hungarian Plain, is well excavated as an important region for spread of Neolithic culture from Near East and Balkans toward Central and Western Europe, started circa 8000 years ago. HVS-I sequences from nt15977 to nt16430 of 11 such specimens with sufficient mitochondrial DNA preservation among an extended Neolithic collection were analysed for polymorphisms, identifying 23 different ones. After assigning all single-nucleotide polymorphisms, a novel, N9a, N1a, C5, D1/G1a, M/R24 haplogroups were determined. On mitochondrial control mutations at nt16257 and nt16261, polymorphic PCRs were carried out to assess their distribution in remains. Neolithic data set was compared with contemporary Vác samples and references, resulting in higher frequency of N9a in Alföld as a remarkable genetic discontinuity. Our investigation is the first to study mutations form Neolithic of Hungary, resulting in an outcome of Far Eastern haplogroups in the Carpathian Basin. It is worth further investigation as a non-descendant theory, instead of a continuous population history, supporting genetic gaps between ancient and recent human populations.

Environmental survey of segregated habitats of Roma in Hungary: a way to be empowering and reliable in minority research.

BACKGROUND: Roma people, the largest minority in Europe live in segregated communites in several countries. The size of the Roma population is based on estimations deriving from various sources, whereas only narrative accounts of their living conditions have been available. METHODS: A comprehensive environmental survey of all settlements in Hungary (n = 3145) was carried out employing Roma field workers in order to locate and characterize segregated parts (colonies) of human habitats. Based on the collected data on environmental conditions and aggregate population numbers of the colonies, ranking of colonies and maps on their characteristics were prepared for all counties of Hungary. RESULTS: Seven hundred fifty-eight colonies were identified with approximately 134,000 inhabitants. Ninety-four percent of all colonies are populated dominantly by Roma. Most frequent environmental problems in the colonies were found to be lack of sewage and gas mains, garbage deposits, waterlogged soil and lack of water mains. CONCLUSION: Census data cannot be used for policy design aiming at those Roma who are in greatest need of help; that is, living in segregated settlements (colonies). Colonies constitute disadvantaged living conditions of varying severity which can be quantified by a composite score based on indicators of access to services and presence of environmental dangers. The proportion of colony-dwelling Roma is approximately one-fifth to one-quarter of the estimated number of Roma people in Hungary.

Deteriorated Dietary Patterns with Regards to Health and Environmental Sustainability among Hungarian Roma Are Not Differentiated from Those of the General Population.

Nutritional epidemiology studies on Roma people are scarce and, to date, their nutrient-based dietary patterns with regards to both healthy and sustainable dietary considerations have never been reported. We report, for the first time, adherence to healthy and sustainable dietary patterns using scoring and regression models, based on recommendations defined by the World Health Organization, in the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) study and the EAT-Lancet report, as well as dietary quality based on Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII) among the Hungarian Roma (HR) population living in North East Hungary, with Hungarian general (HG) adults as reference. Data were obtained from a complex, comparative health survey involving dietary assessment, structured questionnaire-based interview, physical and laboratory examinations on 359 HG and 344 HR subjects in Northeast Hungary. Poisson regressions were fit to models that included DASH, EAT, DII and Healthy Diet Indicator as dependent variables to assess the influence of ethnicity on healthy and sustainable nutrient-based patterns. Adjusted models controlled for all relevant covariates using the residual method indicated poor dietary quality with regards to the selected dietary patterns. These associations were not ethnicity-sensitive, except for DII, where Roma ethnicity was linked to a decrease of DII score (ß = -0.455, 95%CI: -0.720; -0.191, p < 0.05). Currently, HR dietary patterns appear to be relatively unhealthy and unsustainable, rendering them vulnerable to elevated risk of ill-health. Nevertheless, their dietary patterns did not strongly differ from HG, which may contribute to Hungarians being one of the most obese and malnourished nations in Europe. Further prospective research on the potential public and environmental health effects of these findings is warranted.

Maternal Lineages from 10-11th Century Commoner Cemeteries of the Carpathian Basin.

Nomadic groups of conquering Hungarians played a predominant role in Hungarian prehistory, but genetic data are available only from the immigrant elite strata. Most of the 10-11th century remains in the Carpathian Basin belong to common people, whose origin and relation to the immigrant elite have been widely debated. Mitogenome sequences were obtained from 202 individuals with next generation sequencing combined with hybridization capture. Median joining networks were used for phylogenetic analysis. The commoner population was compared to 87 ancient Eurasian populations with sequence-based (Fst) and haplogroup-based population genetic methods. The haplogroup composition of the commoner population markedly differs from that of the elite, and, in contrast to the elite, commoners cluster with European populations. Alongside this, detectable sub-haplogroup sharing indicates admixture between the elite and the commoners. The majority of the 10-11th century commoners most likely represent local populations of the Carpathian Basin, which admixed with the eastern immigrant groups (which included conquering Hungarians).

Population drinking and fatal injuries in Eastern Europe: a time-series analysis of six countries.

AIMS: To estimate to what extent injury mortality rates in 6 Eastern European countries are affected by changes in population drinking during the post-war period. DATA AND METHODS: The analysis included injury mortality rates and per capita alcohol consumption in Russia, Belarus, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria and the former Czechoslovakia. Total population and gender-specific models were estimated using auto regressive integrated moving average time-series modelling. RESULTS: The estimates for the total population were generally positive and significant. For Russia and Belarus, a 1-litre increase in per capita consumption was associated with an increase in injury mortality of 7.5 and 5.5 per 100,000 inhabitants, respectively. The estimates for the remaining countries ranged between 1.4 and 2.0. The gender-specific estimates displayed national variations similar to the total population estimates although the estimates for males were higher than for females in all countries. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that changes in per capita consumption have a significant impact on injury mortality in these countries, but the strength of the association tends to be stronger in countries where intoxication-oriented drinking is more common.

Genetic variation at 15 polymorphic, autosomal, short tandem repeat loci of two Hungarian populations in Transylvania, Romania.

AIM: To determine allele distribution and genetic parameters for two populations living in the Romanian region of Transylvania: Hungarians from Cluj and Szeklers from Covasna county, and to compare the results between the two populations and with other Hungarian and Romanian populations. METHODS: Allele frequencies for 15 autosomal STR loci (D8S1179, D21S11, D7S820, CSF1PO, D3S1358, TH01, D13S317, D16S539, D2S1338, D19S433, VWA, TPOX, D18S51, D5S818, and FGA), several forensic parameters, and paternity parameters were determined for Szekler Hungarians of Covasna county (CV-Sze, n=278) and non-Szekler Transylvanian Hungarians, who were represented by Hungarians from Cluj county (CJ-Hu, n=146). RESULTS: Average expected heterozygosity was above 70%. The combined power of discrimination and combined power of exclusion values were high. All tested loci were in agreement with Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, with the exception of the CSF1PO locus for Covasna county. Pairwise population comparison tests and exact population differentiation tests showed no significant differences between the CJ-Hu and CV-Sze populations, and the CV-Sze group showed greater differences from other Romanian populations than did the CJ-Hu group. CONCLUSION: Hungarians from Cluj show greater genetic heterogeneity than Szeklers from Covasna. The loci tested are suitable for studying micro-differentiation between these two populations, and between these populations and other populations in Hungary and Romania.

Use of 3-dimensional surface acquisition to study facial morphology in 5 populations.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to assess the use of 3-dimensional facial averages for determining morphologic differences from various population groups. METHODS: We recruited 473 subjects from 5 populations. Three-dimensional images of the subjects were obtained in a reproducible and controlled environment with a commercially available stereo-photogrammetric camera capture system. Minolta VI-900 (Konica Minolta, Tokyo, Japan) and 3dMDface (3dMD LLC, Atlanta, Ga) systems were used. Each image was obtained as a facial mesh and orientated along a triangulated axis. All faces were overlaid, one on top of the other, and a complex mathematical algorithm was performed until average composite faces of 1 man and 1 woman were achieved for each subgroup. These average facial composites were superimposed based on a previously validated superimposition method, and the facial differences were quantified. RESULTS: Distinct facial differences were observed among the groups. The linear differences between surface shells ranged from 0.37 to 1.00 mm for the male groups. The linear differences ranged from 0.28 and 0.87 mm for the women. The color histograms showed that the similarities in facial shells between the subgroups by sex ranged from 26.70% to 70.39% for men and 36.09% to 79.83% for women. The average linear distance from the signed color histograms for the male subgroups ranged from -6.30 to 4.44 mm. The female subgroups ranged from -6.32 to 4.25 mm. CONCLUSIONS: Average faces can be efficiently and effectively created from a sample of 3-dimensional faces. Average faces can be used to compare differences in facial morphologies for various populations and sexes. Facial morphologic differences were greatest when totally different ethnic variations were compared. Facial morphologic similarities were present in comparable groups, but there were large variations in concentrated areas of the face.