Specific brain MRI features of constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome in children with high-grade gliomas.

BACKGROUND: Children with constitutional mismatch repair deficiency (CMMRD) syndrome have an increased risk of high-grade gliomas (HGG), and brain imaging abnormalities. This study analyzes brain imaging features in CMMRD syndrome children versus those with HGG without CMMRD. METHODS: Retrospective comparative analysis of brain imaging in 30 CMMRD children (20 boys, median age eight years, 22 with HGG), seven with Lynch syndrome (7 HGG), 39 with type 1 neurofibromatosis (NF1) (four with HGG) and 50 with HGG without MMR or NF1 pathogenic variant ("no-predisposition" patients). RESULTS: HGG in CMMRD and Lynch patients were predominantly hemispheric (versus midline) compared to NF1 and no-predisposition patients (91% and 86%, vs 25% and 54%, p = 0.004). CMMRD-associated tumors often had ill-defined boundaries (p = 0.008). All CMMRD patients exhibited at least one developmental venous anomaly (DVA), versus 14%, 10%, and 6% of Lynch, NF1, and no-predisposition patients (p < 0.0001). Multiple DVAs were observed in 83% of CMMRD patients, one NF1 patient (3%), and never in other groups (p < 0.0001). Cavernomas were discovered in 21% of CMMRD patients, never in other groups (p = 0.01). NF1-like focal areas of high T2-FLAIR signal intensity (FASI) were more prevalent in CMMRD patients than in Lynch or no-predisposition patients (50%, vs 20% and 0%, respectively, p < 0.0001). Subcortical and ill-limited FASI, possibly involving the cortex, were specific to CMMRD (p < 0.0001) and did not evolve in 93% of patients (13/14). CONCLUSION: Diffuse hemispherically located HGG associated with multiple DVAs, cavernomas, and NF1-like or subcortical FASI strongly suggests CMMRD syndrome compared to children with HGG in other contexts. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: The radiologic suggestion of CMMRD syndrome when confronted with HGGs in children may prompt genetic testing. This can influence therapeutic plans. Therefore, imaging features could potentially be incorporated into CMMRD testing recommendations. KEY POINTS: Using imaging to detect CMMRD syndrome early may improve patient care. CMMRD features include: hemispheric HGG with multiple developmental venous anomalies and NF1-like or subcortical areas with high T2-FLAIR intensity. We propose novel imaging features to improve the identification of potential CMMRD patients.

Imaging features to distinguish posterior fossa ependymoma subgroups.

OBJECTIVES: Posterior fossa ependymoma group A (EPN_PFA) and group B (EPN_PFB) can be distinguished by their DNA methylation and give rise to different prognoses. We compared the MRI characteristics of EPN_PFA and EPN_PFB at presentation. METHODS: Preoperative imaging of 68 patients with posterior fossa ependymoma from two centers was reviewed by three independent readers, blinded for histomolecular grouping. Location, tumor extension, tumor volume, hydrocephalus, calcifications, tissue component, enhancement or diffusion signal, and histopathological data (cellular density, calcifications, necrosis, mitoses, vascularization, and microvascular proliferation) were compared between the groups. Categorical data were compared between groups using Fisher's exact tests, and quantitative data using Mann-Whitney tests. We performed a Benjamini-Hochberg correction of the p values to account for multiple tests. RESULTS: Fifty-six patients were categorized as EPN_PFA and 12 as EPN_PFB, with median ages of 2 and 20 years, respectively (p = 0.0008). The median EPN_PFA tumoral volume was larger (57 vs 29 cm3, p = 0.003), with more pronounced hydrocephalus (p = 0.002). EPN_PFA showed an exclusive central position within the 4th ventricle in 61% of patients vs 92% for EPN_PFB (p = 0.01). Intratumor calcifications were found in 93% of EPN_PFA vs 40% of EPN_PFB (p = 0.001). Invasion of the posterior fossa foramina was mostly found for EPN_PFA, particularly the foramina of Luschka (p = 0.0008). EPN_PFA showed whole and homogeneous tumor enhancement in 5% vs 75% of EPN_PFB (p = 0.0008). All mainly cystic tumors were EPN_PFB (p = 0.002). The minimal and maximal relative ADC was slightly lower in EPN_PFA (p = 0.02 and p = 0.01, respectively). CONCLUSION: Morphological characteristics from imaging differ between posterior fossa ependymoma subtypes and may help to distinguish them preoperatively. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: This study provides a tool to differentiate between group A and group B ependymomas, which will ultimately allow the therapeutic strategy to be adapted in the early stages of patient management. KEY POINTS: • Posterior fossa ependymoma subtypes often have different imaging characteristics. • Posterior fossa ependymomas group A are commonly median or lateral tissular calcified masses, with incomplete enhancement, affecting young children and responsible for pronounced hydrocephalus and invasion of the posterior fossa foramina. • Posterior fossa ependymomas group B are commonly median non-calcified masses of adolescents and adults, predominantly cystic, and minimally invasive, with total and homogeneous enhancement.

A new subtype of diffuse midline glioma, H3 K27 and BRAF/FGFR1 co-altered: a clinico-radiological and histomolecular characterisation.

Diffuse midline gliomas (DMG) H3 K27-altered are incurable grade 4 gliomas and represent a major challenge in neuro-oncology. This tumour type is now classified in four subtypes by the 2021 edition of the WHO Classification of the Central Nervous System (CNS) tumours. However, the H3.3-K27M subgroup still appears clinically and molecularly heterogeneous. Recent publications reported that rare patients presenting a co-occurrence of H3.3K27M with BRAF or FGFR1 alterations tended to have a better prognosis. To better study the role of these co-driver alterations, we assembled a large paediatric and adult cohort of 29 tumours H3K27-altered with co-occurring activating mutation in BRAF or FGFR1 as well as 31 previous cases from the literature. We performed a comprehensive histological, radiological, genomic, transcriptomic and DNA methylation analysis. Interestingly, unsupervised t-distributed Stochastic Neighbour Embedding (tSNE) analysis of DNA methylation profiles regrouped BRAFV600E and all but one FGFR1MUT DMG in a unique methylation cluster, distinct from the other DMG subgroups and also from ganglioglioma (GG) or high-grade astrocytoma with piloid features (HGAP). This new DMG subtype harbours atypical radiological and histopathological profiles with calcification and/or a solid tumour component both for BRAFV600E and FGFR1MUT cases. The analyses of a H3.3-K27M BRAFV600E tumour at diagnosis and corresponding in vitro cellular model showed that mutation in H3-3A was the first event in the oncogenesis. Contrary to other DMG, these tumours occur more frequently in the thalamus (70% for BRAFV600E and 58% for FGFR1MUT) and patients have a longer overall survival with a median above three years. In conclusion, DMG, H3 K27 and BRAF/FGFR1 co-altered represent a new subtype of DMG with distinct genotype/phenotype characteristics, which deserve further attention with respect to trial interpretation and patient management.

Pediatric spinal pilocytic astrocytomas form a distinct epigenetic subclass from pilocytic astrocytomas of other locations and diffuse leptomeningeal glioneuronal tumours.

Pediatric spinal low-grade glioma (LGG) and glioneuronal tumours are rare, accounting for less 2.8-5.2% of pediatric LGG. New tumour types frequently found in spinal location such as diffuse leptomeningeal glioneuronal tumours (DLGNT) have been added to the World Health Organization (WHO) classification of tumours of the central nervous system since 2016, but their distinction from others gliomas and particularly from pilocytic astrocytoma (PA) are poorly defined. Most large studies on this subject were published before the era of the molecular diagnosis and did not address the differential diagnosis between PAs and DLGNTs in this peculiar location. Our study retrospectively examined a cohort of 28 children with LGGs and glioneuronal intramedullary tumours using detailed radiological, clinico-pathological and molecular analysis. 25% of spinal PAs were reclassified as DLGNTs. PA and DLGNT are nearly indistinguishable in histopathology or neuroradiology. 83% of spinal DLGNTs presented first without leptomeningeal contrast enhancement. Unsupervised t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) analysis of DNA methylation profiles showed that spinal PAs formed a unique methylation cluster distinct from reference midline and posterior fossa PAs, whereas spinal DLGNTs clustered with reference DLGNT cohort. FGFR1 alterations were found in 36% of spinal tumours and were restricted to PAs. Spinal PAs affected significantly younger patients (median age 2 years old) than DLGNTs (median age 8.2 years old). Progression-free survival was similar among the two groups. In this location, histopathology and radiology are of limited interest, but molecular data (methyloma, 1p and FGFR1 status) represent important tools differentiating these two mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) altered tumour types, PA and DLGNT. Thus, these molecular alterations should systematically be explored in this type of tumour in a spinal location.

Clinico-Radio-Histo-Molecular and Neurocognitive Characteristics of Diffuse Gliomas in Adolescent and Young Adults: A Comprehensive Review.

BACKGROUND: Diffuse gliomas are the most frequent neoplasms in adolescent and young adults (AYAs), especially high-grade gliomas, which have the highest mortality rate. Recent histo-molecular advances are in favour of specialized therapeutic management of AYA patients, which we have analysed in this comprehensive review of the literature. SUMMARY: A literature search was conducted to identify all studies concerning diffuse gliomas and AYAs (15-39 years). We assessed epidemiology, clinical and imaging findings, histo-molecular characteristics, neurosurgical and neuro-oncological management, prognosis, and health-related quality of life. KEY MESSAGES: Diffuse gliomas remain the most frequent brain tumours in the AYA population. Symptoms mainly depend on the tumour location, which varies due to histo-molecular profiles. Specific imaging patterns of histo-molecular subtypes of diffuse gliomas are identified; however, no specific pattern related to the age group has been identified. The literature review favours optimizing the extent of surgical resection for diffuse gliomas, whichever the grade, and suggests a dedicated management for these patients. It seems more relevant to consider the treatment according to the histo-molecular profile of the diffuse glioma rather than the age group. Clinical trials will allow AYA patients to benefit from innovative therapies that could improve their outcome. This literature review suggests the need for a close and long-term psychological follow-up for AYA patients with brain tumour during the transitional care, during adulthood, as well as for their family members. Collaborative efforts are needed between paediatric and adult neurosurgical and neuro-oncological teams, to move forward in the therapeutic management of AYA patients harbouring diffuse gliomas.

Reliability of fast-spin echo T2-weighted three-dimensional sequences to predict endoscopic third ventriculocisternostomy patency in children.

PURPOSE: Clinical and radiological assessment of endoscopic third ventriculocisternostomy (ETV) patency can be challenging in children. The objective of our study was thus to test the accuracy and interrater reliability of 3D fast-spin echo (FSE) T2-weighted sequences to assess the patency of ETV. METHODS: We included all the consecutive children who underwent surgery for ETV over a two-year period and selected the children who presented ETV dysfunction and matched them with children without dysfunction. We evaluated the Kappa interrater reliability of three experienced physicians for prediction of ETV patency using solely the flow void sign in 3D FSE T2-weighted sequences. RESULTS: Nineteen children underwent surgery for ETV dysfunction and 12 children without dysfunction were matched. Sensitivity was 0.79, 0.89 and 0.84 and specificity was 1 for all raters. None of the patent ETV was wrongly considered to be dysfunctional. Fleiss' kappa was 0.871 (p < 0.001). The interrater reliability was excellent with respect to the patency or not of the ETV. CONCLUSION: FSE T2-weighted sequence is a simple and reproducible tool that can be widely used in daily practice to assess the patency of ETV. Interrater reliability of this sequence is high and accessibility in outpatient setting is acceptable.

Roles and outcomes of stereotactic biopsy for adult patients with brainstem lesion.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to assess the benefit-risk ratio by determining diagnostic yield and safety of brainstem biopsies in adult patients. The secondary objectives were (i) to compare brainstem biopsy safety and postbiopsy patients' outcomes and survival with those of patients biopsied for a brain or cerebellar lesion, and (ii) to assess the impact of brainstem biopsy on final diagnosis and further therapeutic management. METHODS: Among 1784 stereotactic biopsies performed in adult patients at a tertiary center between April 2009 and October 2020, we retrospectively examined 50 consecutive brainstem biopsies. We compared variables regarding diagnostic yield, safety and post-biopsy outcomes between brainstem biopsy patients and brain/cerebellum biopsy patients. RESULTS: Brainstem biopsy led to a diagnosis in 86% of patients (94.6% in patients with suspected tumor). Lesion contrast enhancement on imaging was the sole predictor of obtaining a diagnosis. Rates of symptomatic complications and mortality were significantly higher in brainstem biopsy patients compared to brain/cerebellum biopsy patients (20% vs 0%; p < 0.001 and 6% vs 0%; p = 0.01, respectively). Transfrontal trajectory and prebiopsy swallowing disorders were predictors of brainstem biopsy-related symptomatic complications. Brainstem biopsy findings led to diagnostic change in 22% of patients. CONCLUSIONS: Stereotactic biopsy in adult patients with brainstem lesion has a high diagnostic yield. Although stereotactic brainstem biopsy is associated with more functional and fatal complications than biopsies targeting the brain/cerebellum, its safety profile appears acceptable. Thus, the benefit-risk ratio of stereotactic biopsy in patients with brainstem lesion is favorable but should nevertheless be carefully weighted on a case-by-case basis.

The role of irinotecan-bevacizumab as rescue regimen in children with low-grade gliomas: a retrospective nationwide study in 72 patients.

INTRODUCTION: At least half of children with low-grade glioma (LGG) treated with first line chemotherapy experience a relapse/progression and may therefore need a second-line chemotherapy. Irinotecan-bevacizumab has been recommended in this setting in France after encouraging results of pilot studies. We performed a retrospective analysis to define the efficacy, toxicity and predictors for response to the combination on a larger cohort. METHODS: We reviewed the files from children < 19 years of age with progressive or refractory LGG treated between 2009 and 2016 in 7 French centers with this combination. RESULTS: 72 patients (median age 7.8 years [range 1-19]) received a median of 16 courses (range 3-30). The median duration of treatment was 9 months (range 1.4-16.2). 96% of patients experienced at least disease stabilization. The 6-month and 2-year progression-free survivals (PFS) were 91.7% [IC 95% 85.5-98.3] and 38.2% [IC 95% 28.2-51.8] respectively. No progression occurred after treatment in 18 patients with a median follow-up of 35.6 months (range 7.6-75.9 months). Younger patients had a worse PFS (p = 0.005). Prior chemoresistance, NF1 status, duration of treatment, histopathology or radiologic response did not predict response. The most frequent toxicities related to bevacizumab included grades 1-2 proteinuria in 21, epistaxis in 10, fatigue in 12 and hypertension in 8 while gastro-intestinal toxicity was the most frequent side effect related to irinotecan. CONCLUSIONS: Bevacizumab-irinotecan has the potential of disease control clinically and radiographically in children with recurrent LGG whatever their previous characteristics; in many cases however these responses are not sustained, especially in younger children.

Current treatments of medulloblastoma.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The biological knowledge and the new biopathological classification of medulloblastoma subtypes have dramatically changed the therapeutic indications, taking into account not only age and staging but also biopathological risk criteria. This review covers the multidisciplinary approach including surgery, radiation oncology and medical treatments. RECENT FINDINGS: The neurosurgical management of tumor-related hydrocephalus has been modified by the introduction of third ventriculostomy. The initial complete excision is no longer always the first choice, to preserve neurological function. The recent technical improvements of radiotherapy are also implemented to optimize outcome in terms of survival as well as quality of survival. The different medical treatments are adapted according to age and risk factors. The role of high-dose chemotherapy with autologous hematopoietic stem cell rescue has become larger in the high-risk situations. SUMMARY: The rarity of the disease and the high-level of technicity of diagnosis, biopathological subtyping and treatments justifies the referral of these patients to highly specialized centers where all these techniques can be routinely applied, most often in the context of international prospective studies.

Blood-brain barrier opening with low intensity pulsed ultrasound for immune modulation and immune therapeutic delivery to CNS tumors.

INTRODUCTION: Opening of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) by pulsed low intensity ultrasound has been developed during the last decade and is now recognized as a safe technique to transiently and repeatedly open the BBB. This non- or minimally invasive technique allows for a targeted and uniform dispersal of a wide range of therapeutic substances throughout the brain, including immune cells and antibodies. METHODS: In this review article, we summarize pre-clinical studies that have used BBB-opening by pulsed low intensity ultrasound to enhance the delivery of immune therapeutics and effector cell populations, as well as several recent clinical studies that have been initiated. Based on this analysis, we propose immune therapeutic strategies that are most likely to benefit from this strategy. The literature review and trial data research were performed using Medline/Pubmed databases and clinical trial registry www.clinicaltrials.gov . The reference lists of all included articles were searched for additional studies. RESULTS: A wide range of immune therapeutic agents, including small molecular weight drugs, antibodies or NK cells, have been safely and efficiently delivered to the brain with pulsed low intensity ultrasound in preclinical models, and both tumor control and increased survival have been demonstrated in different types of brain tumor models in rodents. Ultrasound-induced BBB disruption may also stimulate innate and cellular immune responses. CONCLUSIONS: Ultrasound BBB opening has just recently entered clinical trials with encouraging results, and the association of this strategy with immune therapeutics creates a new field of brain tumor treatment.

Radiogenomics of diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs): correlation of histological and biological characteristics with multimodal MRI features.

OBJECTIVES: The diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs) are now defined by the type of histone H3 mutated at lysine 27. We aimed to correlate the multimodal MRI features of DIPGs, H3K27M mutant, with their histological and molecular characteristics. METHODS: Twenty-seven treatment-naïve children with histopathologically confirmed DIPG H3K27M mutant were prospectively included. MRI performed prior to biopsy included multi-b-value diffusion-weighted imaging, ASL, and dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC) perfusion imaging. The ADC and cerebral blood flow (CBF) and blood volume (CBV) were measured at the biopsy site. We assessed quantitative histological data, including microvascular density, nuclear density, and H3K27M-positive nuclear density. Gene expression profiling was also assessed in the samples. We compared imaging and histopathological data according to histone subgroup. We correlated MRI quantitative data with histological data and gene expression. RESULTS: H3.1K27M mutated tumors showed higher ADC values (median 3151 µm2/s vs 1741 µm2/s, p = 0.003), and lower perfusion values (DSC-rCBF median 0.71 vs 1.43, p = 0.002, and DSC-rCBV median 1.00 vs 1.71, p = 0.02) than H3.3K27M ones. They had similar microvascular and nuclear density, but lower H3K27M-positive nuclear density (p = 0.007). The DSC-rCBV was positively correlated to the H3K27M-positive nuclear density (rho = 0.74, p = 0.02). ADC values were not correlated with nuclear density nor perfusion values with microvascular density. The expression of gated channel activity-related genes tended to be inversely correlated with ADC values and positively correlated with DSC perfusion. CONCLUSIONS: H3.1K27M mutated tumors have higher ADC and lower perfusion values than H3.3K27M ones, without direct correlation with microvascular or nuclear density. This may be due to tissular edema possibly related to gated channel activity-related gene expression. KEY POINTS: • H3.1K27M mutant DIPG had higher apparent diffusion coefficient (p = 0.003), lower α (p = 0.048), and lower relative cerebral blood volume (p = 0.02) than H3.3K27M mutant DIPG at their biopsy sites. • Biopsy samples obtained within the tumor's enhancing portion showed higher microvascular density (p = 0.03) than samples obtained outside the tumor's enhancing portion, but similar H3K27M-positive nuclear density (p = 0.84). • Relative cerebral blood volume measured at the biopsy site was significantly correlated with H3K27M-positive nuclear density (rho = 0.74, p = 0.02).

The utility of poly(somno)graphy in evaluating children with Chiari malformation type II before and after surgical intervention: a case series.

BACKGROUND: Children with Chiari Malformation type II (CM-II) have an increased risk of sleep apnoea. The aim of the study was to describe the management of patients with CM-II in relation to sleep apnoea syndrome, clinical symptoms and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings. CASE SERIES PRESENTATION: The paper reports 8 consecutive patients with CM-II followed between September 2013 and April 2017. The prevalence of sleep apnoea syndrome was high with 6 out of 8 patients having mild-to-severe sleep apnoea. Patients with severe sleep apnoea syndrome (3 patients) were treated with upper airway surgery and/or noninvasive ventilation. CONCLUSION: Our findings highlight the importance of respiratory polygraphy in the management of patients with CM-ΙΙ. Poly(somno)graphy is recommended in the follow-up care of children with CM-II.

Blood-brain barrier disruption with low-intensity pulsed ultrasound for the treatment of pediatric brain tumors: a review and perspectives.

Pediatric brain tumors are the most common solid tumor and the first cause of cancer death in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. Current treatments are far from optimal in most of these tumors and the prognosis remains dismal for many of them. One of the main causes of the failure of current medical treatments is in part due to the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which limits drug delivery to tumors. Opening of the BBB with low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPU) has emerged during the last 2 decades as a promising technique for enhancing drug delivery to the brain. In preclinical models, enhanced delivery of a wide range of therapeutic agents, from low-molecular-weight drugs, to antibodies and immune cells, has been observed as well as tumor control and increased survival. This technique has recently entered clinical trials with extracranial and intracranial devices. The safety and feasibility of this technique has furthermore been shown in patients treated monthly for recurrent glioblastoma receiving carboplatin chemotherapy. In this review, the characteristics of the BBB in the most common pediatric brain tumors are reviewed. Then, principles and mechanisms of BBB disruption with ultrasound (US) are summarized and described at the histological and biological levels. Lastly, preclinical studies that have used US-induced BBB opening in tumor models, recent clinical trials, and the potential use of this technology in pediatrics are provided.

Acute Isolated Paraplegia Revealing an Ewing Sarcoma of the Thoracic Spine.

Ewing sarcoma (ES) infrequently affects the spine. Diagnosis is usually made several weeks following growing symptoms. In this report, we present the case of a child with ES localized at the upper thoracic level. ES was revealed by isolated acute complete paraplegia mimicking medullary stroke. The girl was operated for decompressive laminectomy and tumor removal. Afterwards, she received adjuvant therapy. Subsequently, the child showed a slow improvement of her leg sensitivity associated with a partial motor recovery. ES can affect the mobile spine. Acute symptomatology due to intratumoral hemorrhage and sudden spinal cord compression may suggest the diagnosis. Neurological outcomes following ES are generally poor.

Spinal lipoma of the filum terminale: review of 174 consecutive patients.

PURPOSE: Spinal lipoma of the filum terminale (LFT) is a congenital lumbosacral anomaly that can cause tethered cord syndrome. Purposes of this study are to clarify preoperative characteristics of LFT, to elucidate surgical effects, and to discuss the rationale of prophylactic surgery for LFT. METHODS: Medical data of 174 children (2008-2014) who underwent section of LFT were prospectively recorded for prevalence of symptoms, skin stigmas, and associated malformations, motivator of diagnosis, conus level, and surgical outcome. Mean age at surgery was 4.1 ± 4.2 years (37 days to 17.7 years). RESULTS: Ninety-four children (54.0 %) had skin stigmas and 60 (34.5 %) had certain perineal malformations. Seventy-nine children (45.4 %) were symptomatic. The most common motivator for diagnosis was skin stigmas (44.3 %), followed by associated malformations (33.3 %), and symptoms (20.1 %). The age at surgery was significantly older in symptomatic patients than in asymptomatic patients (p < 0.001). Surgery improved symptoms in 50 % of patients at 2.1-year follow-up period. Of 85 asymptomatic patients, all except one remained asymptomatic postoperatively and none of the symptomatic patients deteriorated. The presence of associated malformations and the conus level did not affect surgical outcome. Postoperative complications developed in nine patients (5.2 %): seven transient local problems, one definitive urological deterioration, and one transient respiratory problem. CONCLUSIONS: Surgery for LFT was a simple and safe procedure. It improved half of symptomatic patients and stopped the deterioration of the others. Even if only one of the asymptomatic patients deteriorated at maximum follow-up, the role of prophylactic surgery remains a point of discussion.

Chordoma in children: Case-report and review of literature.

We report an exceptional case of a very late local failure in a 9-year-old boy presenting with a chordoma of the cranio-cervical junction. The child was initially treated with a combination of surgical resection followed by high dose photon-proton radiation therapy. This aggressive therapy allowed a 9-year remission with minimal side-effects. Unfortunately, he subsequently presented with a local failure managed with a second full-dose course of protons. The child died one year later from local bleeding of unclear etiology.

Reprint of "Chordoma in children: Case-report and review of literature".

We report an exceptional case of a very late local failure in a 9-year-old boy presenting with a chordoma of the cranio-cervical junction. The child was initially treated with a combination of surgical resection followed by high dose photon-proton radiation therapy. This aggressive therapy allowed a 9-year remission with minimal side-effects. Unfortunately, he subsequently presented with a local failure managed with a second full-dose course of protons. The child died one year later from local bleeding of unclear etiology.