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1.
J Struct Biol ; 213(3): 107747, 2021 09.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-34010666

ABSTRACT

Guanine deaminases (GDs) are essential enzymes that regulate the overall nucleobase pool. Since the deamination of guanine to xanthine results in the production of a mutagenic base, these enzymes have evolved to be very specific in nature. Surprisingly, they accept structurally distinct triazine ammeline, an intermediate in the melamine pathway, as one of the moonlighting substrates. Here, by employing NE0047 (a GD from Nitrosomonas europaea), we delineate the nuance in the catalytic mechanism that allows these two distinct substrates to be catalyzed. A combination of enzyme kinetics, X-ray crystallographic, and calorimetric studies reveal that GDs operate via a dual proton shuttle mechanism with two glutamates, E79 and E143, crucial for deamination. Additionally, N66 appears to be central for substrate anchoring and participates in catalysis. The study highlights the importance of closure of the catalytic loop and of maintenance of the hydrophobic core by capping residues like F141 and F48 for the creation of an apt environment for activation of the zinc-assisted catalysis. This study also analyzes evolutionarily distinct GDs and asserts that GDs incorporate subtle variations in the active site architectures while keeping the most critical active site determinants conserved.


Subject(s)
Guanine Deaminase , Binding Sites , Catalysis , Catalytic Domain/genetics , Crystallography, X-Ray , Guanine Deaminase/chemistry , Guanine Deaminase/genetics , Guanine Deaminase/metabolism , Kinetics , Mutagenesis/genetics , Protons , Substrate Specificity
2.
J Biol Chem ; 294(6): 1831-1845, 2019 02 08.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30545939

ABSTRACT

The interaction between the receptor 4-1BB and its ligand 4-1BBL provides co-stimulatory signals for T-cell activation and proliferation. However, differences in the mouse and human molecules might result in differential engagement of this pathway. Here, we report the crystal structure of mouse 4-1BBL and of the mouse 4-1BB/4-1BBL complex, which together provided insights into the molecular mechanism by which m4-1BBL and its cognate receptor recognize each other. Unlike all human or mouse tumor necrosis factor ligands that form noncovalent and mostly trimeric assemblies, the m4-1BBL structure formed a disulfide-linked dimeric assembly. The structure disclosed that certain differences in the amino acid composition along the intramolecular interface, together with two specific residues (Cys-246 and Ser-256) present exclusively in m4-1BBL, are responsible for this unique dimerization. Unexpectedly, upon m4-1BB binding, m4-1BBL undergoes structural changes within each protomer; moreover, the individual m4-1BBL protomers rotate relative to each other, yielding a dimerization interface with more inter-subunit interactions. We also observed that in the m4-1BB/4-1BBL complex, each receptor monomer binds exclusively to a single ligand subunit with contributions of cysteine-rich domain 1 (CRD1), CRD2, and CRD3. Furthermore, structure-guided mutagenesis of the binding interface revealed that novel binding interactions with the GH loop, rather than the DE loop, are energetically critical and define the m4-1BB receptor selectivity for m4-1BBL. A comparison with the human 4-1BB/4-1BBL complex highlighted several differences between the ligand- and receptor-binding interfaces, providing an explanation for the absence of inter-species cross-reactivity between human and mouse 4-1BB and 4-1BBL molecules.


Subject(s)
4-1BB Ligand/chemistry , Multiprotein Complexes/chemistry , Protein Multimerization , Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 9/chemistry , Animals , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Mice , Protein Domains , Protein Structure, Quaternary , Sf9 Cells , Spodoptera
3.
J Biol Chem ; 294(27): 10519-10529, 2019 07 05.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-31126984

ABSTRACT

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a ß-herpesvirus that has co-evolved with the host immune system to establish lifelong persistence. HCMV encodes many immunomodulatory molecules, including the glycoprotein UL144. UL144 is a structural mimic of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member HVEM (herpesvirus entry mediator), which binds to the various ligands LIGHT, LTα, BTLA, CD160, and gD. However, in contrast to HVEM, UL144 only binds BTLA, inhibiting T-cell activation. Here, we report the crystal structure of the UL144-BTLA complex, revealing that UL144 utilizes residues from its N-terminal cysteine-rich domain 1 (CRD1) to interact uniquely with BTLA. The shorter CRD2 loop of UL144 also alters the relative orientation of BTLA binding with both N-terminal CRDs. By employing structure-guided mutagenesis, we have identified a mutant of BTLA (L123A) that interferes with HVEM binding but preserves UL144 interactions. Furthermore, our results illuminate structural differences between UL144 and HVEM that explain its binding selectivity and highlight it as a suitable scaffold for designing superior, immune inhibitory BTLA agonists.


Subject(s)
Cytomegalovirus/metabolism , Membrane Glycoproteins/chemistry , Receptors, Immunologic/metabolism , Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Member 14/chemistry , Viral Proteins/chemistry , Amino Acid Sequence , Binding Sites , Crystallography, X-Ray , Humans , Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism , Mutagenesis, Site-Directed , Protein Binding , Receptors, Immunologic/chemistry , Receptors, Immunologic/genetics , Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Member 14/metabolism , Recombinant Proteins/biosynthesis , Recombinant Proteins/chemistry , Recombinant Proteins/genetics , Sequence Alignment , Viral Proteins/metabolism
4.
J Biol Chem ; 294(39): 14345-14356, 2019 09 27.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-31391251

ABSTRACT

Type I natural killer T (NKT) cells are a population of innate like T lymphocytes that rapidly respond to α-GalCer presented by CD1d via the production of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. While developing novel α-GalCer analogs that were meant to be utilized as potential adjuvants because of their production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (Th1 skewers), we generated α-galactosylsphingamides (αGSA). Surprisingly, αGSAs are not potent antigens in vivo despite their strong T-cell receptor (TCR)-binding affinities. Here, using surface plasmon resonance (SPR), antigen presentation assays, and X-ray crystallography (yielding crystal structures of 19 different binary (CD1d-glycolipid) or ternary (CD1d-glycolipid-TCR) complexes at resolutions between 1.67 and 2.85 Å), we characterized the biochemical and structural details of αGSA recognition by murine NKT cells. We identified a molecular switch within murine (m)CD1d that modulates NKT cell activation by αGSAs. We found that the molecular switch involves a hydrogen bond interaction between Tyr-73 of mCD1d and the amide group oxygen of αGSAs. We further established that the length of the acyl chain controls the positioning of the amide group with respect to the molecular switch and works synergistically with Tyr-73 to control NKT cell activity. In conclusion, our findings reveal important mechanistic insights into the presentation and recognition of glycolipids with polar moieties in an otherwise apolar milieu. These observations may inform the development αGSAs as specific NKT cell antagonists to modulate immune responses.


Subject(s)
Antigens, CD1d/chemistry , Glycosphingolipids/chemistry , Killer Cells, Natural/immunology , Molecular Dynamics Simulation , Animals , Antigens, CD1d/metabolism , Binding Sites , Glycosphingolipids/metabolism , Hydrogen Bonding , Lymphocyte Activation , Mice , Oxygen/chemistry , Protein Binding , Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/chemistry , Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism , Sf9 Cells , Spodoptera
5.
J Biol Chem ; 293(26): 9958-9969, 2018 06 29.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29720398

ABSTRACT

Human (h)4-1BB (TNFRSF9 or CD137) is an inducible tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily member that interacts with its cognate ligand h4-1BBL to promote T lymphocyte activation and proliferation. h4-1BB is currently being targeted with agonists in cancer immunotherapy. Here, we determined the crystal structures of unbound h4-1BBL and both WT h4-1BB and a dimerization-deficient h4-1BB mutant (C121S) in complex with h4-1BBL at resolutions between 2.7 and 3.2 Å. We observed that the structural arrangement of 4-1BBL, both unbound and in the complex, represents the canonical bell shape as seen in other similar TNF proteins and differs from the previously reported three-bladed propeller structure of 4-1BBL. We also found that the binding site for the receptor is at the crevice formed between two protomers of h4-1BBL, but that h4-1BB interacts predominantly with only one ligand protomer. Moreover, h4-1BBL lacked the conserved tyrosine residue in the DE loop that forms canonical interactions between other TNFR family molecules and their ligands, suggesting h4-1BBL engages h4-1BB through a distinct mechanism. Of note, we discovered that h4-1BB forms a disulfide-linked dimer because of the presence of an additional cysteine residue found in its cysteine-rich domain 4 (CRD4). As a result, h4-1BB dimerization, in addition to trimerization via h4-1BBL binding, could result in cross-linking of individual ligand-receptor complexes to form a 2D network that stimulates strong h4-1BB signaling. This work provides critical insights into the structural and functional properties of both h4-1BB and h4-1BBL and reveals that covalent receptor dimerization amplifies h4-1BB signaling.


Subject(s)
4-1BB Ligand/metabolism , Protein Multimerization , Signal Transduction , Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 9/chemistry , Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 9/metabolism , 4-1BB Ligand/chemistry , Crystallography, X-Ray , Humans , Ligands , Protein Binding , Protein Structure, Quaternary
6.
J Biol Chem ; 293(4): 1317-1329, 2018 01 26.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29242193

ABSTRACT

4-1BB (CD137) is a TNF receptor superfamily (TNFRSF) member that is thought to undergo receptor trimerization upon binding to its trimeric TNF superfamily ligand (4-1BBL) to stimulate immune responses. 4-1BB also can bind to the tandem repeat-type lectin galectin-9 (Gal-9), and signaling through mouse (m)4-1BB is reduced in galectin-9 (Gal-9)-deficient mice, suggesting a pivotal role of Gal-9 in m4-1BB activation. Here, using sulfur-SAD phasing, we determined the crystal structure of m4-1BB to 2.2-Å resolution. We found that similar to other TNFRSFs, m4-1BB has four cysteine-rich domains (CRDs). However, the organization of CRD1 and the orientation of CRD3 and CRD4 with respect to CRD2 in the m4-1BB structure distinctly differed from those of other TNFRSFs. Moreover, we mapped two Asn residues within CRD4 that are N-linked glycosylated and mediate m4-1BB binding to Gal-9. Kinetics studies of m4-1BB disclosed a very tight nanomolar binding affinity to m4-1BBL with an unexpectedly strong avidity effect. Both N- and C-terminal domains of Gal-9 bound m4-1BB, but with lower affinity compared with m4-1BBL. Although the TNF homology domain (THD) of human (h)4-1BBL forms non-covalent trimers, we found that m4-1BBL formed a covalent dimer via 2 cysteines absent in h4-1BBL. As multimerization and clustering is a prerequisite for TNFR intracellular signaling, and as m4-1BBL can only recruit two m4-1BB monomers, we hypothesize that m4-1BBL and Gal-9 act together to aid aggregation of m4-1BB monomers to efficiently initiate m4-1BB signaling.


Subject(s)
4-1BB Ligand/chemistry , Galectins/chemistry , Signal Transduction , Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 9/chemistry , 4-1BB Ligand/genetics , 4-1BB Ligand/metabolism , Animals , Crystallography, X-Ray , Galectins/genetics , Galectins/metabolism , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Mice , Protein Domains , Protein Structure, Quaternary , Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 9/genetics , Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 9/metabolism
7.
J Biol Chem ; 293(1): 390-401, 2018 01 05.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29123031

ABSTRACT

Vaccinia virus (VACV) envelope protein D8 is one of three glycosaminoglycan adhesion molecules and binds to the linear polysaccharide chondroitin sulfate (CS). D8 is also a target for neutralizing antibody responses that are elicited by the smallpox vaccine, which has enabled the first eradication of a human viral pathogen and is a useful model for studying antibody responses. However, to date, VACV epitopes targeted by human antibodies have not been characterized at atomic resolution. Here, we characterized the binding properties of several human anti-D8 antibodies and determined the crystal structures of three VACV-mAb variants, VACV-66, VACV-138, and VACV-304, separately bound to D8. Although all these antibodies bound D8 with high affinity and were moderately neutralizing in the presence of complement, VACV-138 and VACV-304 also fully blocked D8 binding to CS-A, the low affinity ligand for D8. VACV-138 also abrogated D8 binding to the high-affinity ligand CS-E, but we observed residual CS-E binding was observed in the presence of VACV-304. Analysis of the VACV-138- and VACV-304-binding sites along the CS-binding crevice of D8, combined with different efficiencies of blocking D8 adhesion to CS-A and CS-E allowed us to propose that D8 has a high- and low-affinity CS-binding region within its central crevice. The crevice is amenable to protein engineering to further enhance both specificity and affinity of binding to CS-E. Finally, a wild-type D8 tetramer specifically bound to structures within the developing glomeruli of the kidney, which express CS-E. We propose that through structure-based protein engineering, an improved D8 tetramer could be used as a potential diagnostic tool to detect expression of CS-E, which is a possible biomarker for ovarian cancer.


Subject(s)
Antibodies, Viral/ultrastructure , Cell Adhesion Molecules/immunology , Viral Envelope Proteins/chemistry , Antibodies/metabolism , Antibodies/physiology , Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology , Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology , Antibodies, Viral/immunology , Antibody Formation/physiology , Antigens, Viral/immunology , Crystallography, X-Ray/methods , Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay/methods , Epitopes/chemistry , Humans , Neutralization Tests , Protein Binding , Structure-Activity Relationship , Vaccinia virus/immunology , Viral Envelope Proteins/immunology
8.
Nucleic Acids Res ; 42(15): 10122-33, 2014 Sep.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-25092919

ABSTRACT

Antibiotic production and resistance pathways in Streptomyces are dictated by the interplay of transcriptional regulatory proteins that trigger downstream responses via binding to small diffusible molecules. To decipher the mode of DNA binding and the associated allosteric mechanism in the sub-class of transcription factors that are induced by γ-butyrolactones, we present the crystal structure of CprB in complex with the consensus DNA element to a resolution of 3.25 Å. Binding of the DNA results in the restructuring of the dimeric interface of CprB, inducing a pendulum-like motion of the helix-turn-helix motif that inserts into the major groove. The crystal structure revealed that, CprB is bound to DNA as a dimer of dimers with the mode of binding being analogous to the broad spectrum multidrug transporter protein QacR from the antibiotic resistant strain Staphylococcus aureus. It was demonstrated that the CprB displays a cooperative mode of DNA binding, following a clamp and click model. Experiments performed on a subset of DNA sequences from Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) suggest that CprB is most likely a pleiotropic regulator. Apart from serving as an autoregulator, it is potentially a part of a network of proteins that modulates the γ-butyrolactone synthesis and antibiotic regulation pathways in S. coelicolor A3(2).


Subject(s)
Bacterial Proteins/chemistry , DNA-Binding Proteins/chemistry , Streptomyces coelicolor/genetics , Transcription Factors/chemistry , Apoproteins/chemistry , Bacterial Proteins/genetics , Bacterial Proteins/metabolism , Base Sequence , Consensus Sequence , DNA, Bacterial/chemistry , DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Gene Expression Regulation, Bacterial , Models, Molecular , Mutagenesis , Protein Binding , Protein Multimerization , Protein Structure, Tertiary , Transcription Factors/genetics , Transcription Factors/metabolism , Transcription, Genetic
9.
Biochemistry ; 52(45): 8106-14, 2013 Nov 12.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-24083949

ABSTRACT

Guanine deaminases (GDs) are important enzymes involved in purine metabolism as well as nucleotide anabolism pathways that exhibit a high degree of fidelity. Here, the structural basis of the substrate specificity of GDs was investigated by determining a series of X-ray structures of NE0047 (GD from Nitrosomonas europaea) with nucleobase analogues and nucleosides. The structures demonstrated that the interactions in the GD active site are tailor-made to accommodate only guanine and any substitutions in the purine ring or introduction of a pyrimidine ring results in rearrangement of the bases in a catalytically unfavorable orientation, away from the proton shuttling residue E143. In addition, X-ray structural studies performed on cytidine revealed that although it binds in an optimal conformation, its deamination does not occur because of the inability of the enzyme to orchestrate the closure of the catalytically important C-terminal loop (residues 181-189). Isothermal calorimetry measurements established that these nucleoside moieties also disrupt the sequential mode of ligand binding, thereby abrogating all intersubunit communication. Intriguingly, it was recently discovered that GDs can also serve as endogenous ammeline deaminases, although it is structurally nonhomologous with guanine. To understand the mechanism of dual-substrate specificity, the structure of NE0047 in complex with ammeline was determined to a resolution of 2.7 Å. The structure revealed that ammeline not only fits in the active site in a catalytically favorable orientation but also allows for closure of the C-terminal loop.


Subject(s)
Cytidine Deaminase/chemistry , Cytidine Deaminase/metabolism , Guanine Deaminase/chemistry , Guanine Deaminase/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Binding Sites , Catalysis , Crystallography, X-Ray , Molecular Structure , Protein Binding , Substrate Specificity
10.
Biochemistry ; 52(20): 3512-22, 2013 May 21.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-23557066

ABSTRACT

NE0047 from Nitrosomonas europaea has been annotated as a zinc-dependent deaminase; however, the substrate specificity is unknown because of the low level of structural similarity and sequence identity compared to other family members. In this study, the function of NE0047 was established as a guanine deaminase (catalytic efficiency of 1.2 × 10(5) M(-1) s(-1)), exhibiting secondary activity towards ammeline. The structure of NE0047 in the presence of the substrate analogue 8-azaguanine was also determined to a resolution of 1.9 Å. NE0047 crystallized as a homodimer in an asymmetric unit. It was found that the extreme nine-amino acid C-terminal loop forms an active site flap; in one monomer, the flap is in the closed conformation and in the other in the open conformation with this loop region exposed to the solvent. Calorimetric data obtained using the full-length version of the enzyme fit to a sequential binding model, thus supporting a cooperative mode of ligand occupancy. In contrast, the mutant form of the enzyme (ΔC) with the deletion of the extreme nine amino acids follows an independent model of ligand occupancy. In addition, the ΔC mutant also does not exhibit any enzyme activity. Therefore, we propose that the progress of the reaction is communicated via changes in the conformation of the C-terminal flap and the closed form of the enzyme is the catalytically active form, while the open form allows for product release. The catalytic mechanism of deamination was also investigated, and we found that the mutagenesis of the highly conserved active site residues Glu79 and Glu143 resulted in a complete loss of activity and concluded that they facilitate the reaction by serving as proton shuttles.


Subject(s)
Bacterial Proteins/chemistry , Guanine Deaminase/chemistry , Nitrosomonas europaea/enzymology , Bacterial Proteins/metabolism , Catalysis , Catalytic Domain , Guanine Deaminase/metabolism , Ligands , Models, Molecular , Nitrosomonas europaea/metabolism , Protein Conformation , Substrate Specificity
11.
ChemMedChem ; 14(1): 147-168, 2019 01 08.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30556652

ABSTRACT

Invariant natural killer T-cells (iNKT) are a glycolipid-responsive subset of T-lymphocytes that fulfill a pivotal role in the immune system. The archetypical synthetic glycolipid, α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer), whose molecular framework is inspired by a group of amphiphilic natural products, remains the most studied antigen for iNKT-cells. Nonetheless, the potential of α-GalCer as an immunostimulating agent is compromised by the fact that this glycolipid elicits simultaneous secretion of Th1- and Th2-cytokines. This has incited medicinal chemistry efforts to identify analogues that are able to perturb the Th1/Th2 balance. In this work, we present the synthesis of an extensive set of 4"-O-alkylated α-GalCer analogues, which were evaluated in vivo for their cytokine induction. We have found that conversion of the 4"-OH group to ether moieties decreases the immunogenic potential in mice relative to α-GalCer. Yet, the benzyl-modified glycolipids are able to produce a distinct pro-inflammatory immune response. The crystal structures suggest an extra hydrophobic interaction between the benzyl moiety and the α2-helix of CD1d.


Subject(s)
Antigens/chemistry , Antigens/immunology , Galactosylceramides/chemical synthesis , Galactosylceramides/immunology , Natural Killer T-Cells/immunology , Alkylation , Animals , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Galactosylceramides/chemistry , Humans , Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions , Mice , Molecular Structure , Structure-Activity Relationship
12.
Front Immunol ; 10: 2572, 2019.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-31803176

ABSTRACT

Targeting CD8+ T cells to recurrent tumor-specific mutations can profoundly contribute to cancer treatment. Some of these mutations are potential tumor antigens although they can be displayed by non-spliced epitopes only in a few patients, because of the low affinity of the mutated non-spliced peptides for the predominant HLA class I alleles. Here, we describe a pipeline that uses the large sequence variety of proteasome-generated spliced peptides and identifies spliced epitope candidates, which carry the mutations and bind the predominant HLA-I alleles with high affinity. They could be used in adoptive T cell therapy and other anti-cancer immunotherapies for large cohorts of cancer patients. As a proof of principle, the application of this pipeline led to the identification of a KRAS G12V mutation-carrying spliced epitope candidate, which is produced by proteasomes, transported by TAPs and efficiently presented by the most prevalent HLA class I molecules, HLA-A*02:01 complexes.


Subject(s)
Alternative Splicing , Computational Biology , Epitope Mapping , Epitopes/genetics , HLA-A Antigens/genetics , Neoplasms/genetics , Neoplasms/immunology , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/genetics , Amino Acid Sequence , Antigens, Neoplasm/genetics , Antigens, Neoplasm/immunology , Binding Sites , Computational Biology/methods , Epitopes/chemistry , Epitopes/immunology , Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic , HLA-A Antigens/chemistry , HLA-A Antigens/immunology , Humans , Models, Molecular , Molecular Conformation , Neoplasms/metabolism , Peptides/chemistry , Peptides/genetics , Peptides/immunology , Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex/metabolism , Protein Binding , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/chemistry , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/immunology , Structure-Activity Relationship
13.
Sci Rep ; 7: 45020, 2017 03 22.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28327630

ABSTRACT

Rassf1A/5 tumor suppressors serve as adaptor proteins possessing a modular architecture with the C-terminal consisting of a coiled-coil SARAH (Salvador-Rassf-Hippo) domain and the central portion being composed of Ras associated (RA) domain. Here, we investigate the effect of Rassf effectors on Mst1 function by mapping the interaction of various domains of Rassf1A/5 and Mst1 kinase using surface plasmon resonance (SPR). The results revealed that apart from the C-terminal SARAH domain of Mst1 which interacts to form heterodimers with Rassf1A/5, the N-terminal kinase domain of Mst1 plays a crucial role in the stabilization of this complex. In addition, SPR experiments show that the RA domains play an important role in fine-tuning the Mst1-Rassf interaction, with Rassf5 being a preferred partner over a similar Rassf1A construct. It was also demonstrated that the activity profile of Mst1 in presence of Rassf adaptors completely switches. A Rassf-Mst1 complexed version of the kinase becomes apoptotic by positively regulating Mst1-H2B mediated serine 14 histone H2B phosphorylation, a hallmark of chromatin condensation. In contrast, the heterodimerization of Mst1 with Rassf1A/5 suppresses the phosphorylation of FoxO, thereby inhibiting the downstream Mst1-FoxO signalling pathway.


Subject(s)
Hepatocyte Growth Factor/metabolism , Monomeric GTP-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Proto-Oncogene Proteins/metabolism , Tumor Suppressor Proteins/metabolism , Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing , Animals , Apoptosis Regulatory Proteins , Enzyme Activation , Humans , Kinetics , Models, Biological , Models, Molecular , Monomeric GTP-Binding Proteins/chemistry , Monomeric GTP-Binding Proteins/genetics , Multigene Family , Protein Binding , Protein Conformation , Protein Interaction Domains and Motifs , Tumor Suppressor Proteins/chemistry , Tumor Suppressor Proteins/genetics
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