Killing from the inside: Intracellular role of T3SS in the fate of Pseudomonas aeruginosa within macrophages revealed by mgtC and oprF mutants.

While considered solely an extracellular pathogen, increasing evidence indicates that Pseudomonas aeruginosa encounters intracellular environment in diverse mammalian cell types, including macrophages. In the present study, we have deciphered the intramacrophage fate of wild-type P. aeruginosa PAO1 strain by live and electron microscopy. P. aeruginosa first resided in phagosomal vacuoles and subsequently could be detected in the cytoplasm, indicating phagosomal escape of the pathogen, a finding also supported by vacuolar rupture assay. The intracellular bacteria could eventually induce cell lysis, both in a macrophage cell line and primary human macrophages. Two bacterial factors, MgtC and OprF, recently identified to be important for survival of P. aeruginosa in macrophages, were found to be involved in bacterial escape from the phagosome as well as in cell lysis caused by intracellular bacteria. Strikingly, type III secretion system (T3SS) genes of P. aeruginosa were down-regulated within macrophages in both mgtC and oprF mutants. Concordantly, cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP) level was increased in both mutants, providing a clue for negative regulation of T3SS inside macrophages. Consistent with the phenotypes and gene expression pattern of mgtC and oprF mutants, a T3SS mutant (ΔpscN) exhibited defect in phagosomal escape and macrophage lysis driven by internalized bacteria. Importantly, these effects appeared to be largely dependent on the ExoS effector, in contrast with the known T3SS-dependent, but ExoS independent, cytotoxicity caused by extracellular P. aeruginosa towards macrophages. Moreover, this macrophage damage caused by intracellular P. aeruginosa was found to be dependent on GTPase Activating Protein (GAP) domain of ExoS. Hence, our work highlights T3SS and ExoS, whose expression is modulated by MgtC and OprF, as key players in the intramacrophage life of P. aeruginosa which allow internalized bacteria to lyse macrophages.

PtpA, a secreted tyrosine phosphatase from Staphylococcus aureus, contributes to virulence and interacts with coronin-1A during infection.

Secretion of bacterial signaling proteins and adaptation to the host, especially during infection, are processes that are often linked in pathogenic bacteria. The human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is equipped with a large arsenal of immune-modulating factors, allowing it to either subvert the host immune response or to create permissive niches for its survival. Recently, we showed that one of the low-molecular-weight protein tyrosine phosphatases produced by S. aureus, PtpA, is secreted during growth. Here, we report that deletion of ptpA in S. aureus affects intramacrophage survival and infectivity. We also observed that PtpA is secreted during macrophage infection. Immunoprecipitation assays identified several host proteins as putative intracellular binding partners for PtpA, including coronin-1A, a cytoskeleton-associated protein that is implicated in a variety of cellular processes. Of note, we demonstrated that coronin-1A is phosphorylated on tyrosine residues upon S. aureus infection and that its phosphorylation profile is linked to PtpA expression. Our results confirm that PtpA has a critical role during infection as a bacterial effector protein that counteracts host defenses.

A Macrophage Subversion Factor Is Shared by Intracellular and Extracellular Pathogens.

Pathogenic bacteria have developed strategies to adapt to host environment and resist host immune response. Several intracellular bacterial pathogens, including Salmonella enterica and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, share the horizontally-acquired MgtC virulence factor that is important for multiplication inside macrophages. MgtC is also found in pathogenic Pseudomonas species. Here we investigate for the first time the role of MgtC in the virulence of an extracellular pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A P. aeruginosa mgtC mutant is attenuated in the systemic infection model of zebrafish embryos, and strikingly, the attenuated phenotype is dependent on the presence of macrophages. In ex vivo experiments, the P. aeruginosa mgtC mutant is more sensitive to macrophage killing than the wild-type strain. However, wild-type and mutant strains behave similarly toward macrophage killing when macrophages are treated with an inhibitor of the vacuolar proton ATPase. Importantly, P. aeruginosa mgtC gene expression is strongly induced within macrophages and phagosome acidification contributes to an optimal expression of the gene. Thus, our results support the implication of a macrophage intracellular stage during P. aeruginosa acute infection and suggest that Pseudomonas MgtC requires phagosome acidification to play its intracellular role. Moreover, we demonstrate that P. aeruginosa MgtC is required for optimal growth in Mg2+ deprived medium, a property shared by MgtC factors from intracellular pathogens and, under Mg2+ limitation, P. aeruginosa MgtC prevents biofilm formation. We propose that MgtC shares a similar function in intracellular and extracellular pathogens, which contributes to macrophage resistance and fine-tune adaptation to host immune response in relation to the different bacterial lifestyles. In addition, the phenotypes observed with the mgtC mutant in infection models can be mimicked in wild-type P. aeruginosa strain by producing a MgtC antagonistic peptide, thus highlighting MgtC as a promising new target for anti-virulence strategies.

MgtC as a Host-Induced Factor and Vaccine Candidate against Mycobacterium abscessus Infection.

Mycobacterium abscessus is an emerging pathogenic mycobacterium involved in pulmonary and mucocutaneous infections, presenting a serious threat for patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). The lack of an efficient treatment regimen and the emergence of multidrug resistance in clinical isolates require the development of new therapeutic strategies against this pathogen. Reverse genetics has revealed genes that are present in M. abscessus but absent from saprophytic mycobacteria and that are potentially involved in pathogenicity. Among them, MAB_3593 encodes MgtC, a known virulence factor involved in intramacrophage survival and adaptation to Mg(2+) deprivation in several major bacterial pathogens. Here, we demonstrated a strong induction of M. abscessus MgtC at both the transcriptional and translational levels when bacteria reside inside macrophages or upon Mg(2+) deprivation. Moreover, we showed that M. abscessus MgtC was recognized by sera from M. abscessus-infected CF patients. The intramacrophage growth (J774 or THP1 cells) of a M. abscessus knockout mgtC mutant was, however, not significantly impeded. Importantly, our results indicated that inhibition of MgtC in vivo through immunization with M. abscessus mgtC DNA, formulated with a tetrafunctional amphiphilic block copolymer, exerted a protective effect against an aerosolized M. abscessus challenge in CF (ΔF508 FVB) mice. The formulated DNA immunization was likely associated with the production of specific MgtC antibodies, which may stimulate a protective effect by counteracting MgtC activity during M. abscessus infection. These results emphasize the importance of M. abscessus MgtC in vivo and provide a basis for the development of novel therapeutic tools against pulmonary M. abscessus infections in CF patients.

Contribution of intramacrophage stages to Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection outcome in zebrafish embryos: insights from mgtC and oprF mutants.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa often colonizes immunocompromised patients, causing acute and chronic infections. This bacterium can reside transiently inside cultured macrophages, but the contribution of the intramacrophic stage during infection remains unclear. MgtC and OprF have been identified as important bacterial factors when P. aeruginosa resides inside cultured macrophages. In this study, we showed that P. aeruginosa mgtC and oprF mutants, particular the latter one, had attenuated virulence in both mouse and zebrafish animal models of acute infection. To further investigate P. aeruginosa pathogenesis in zebrafish at a stage different from acute infection, we monitored bacterial load and visualized fluorescent bacteria in live larvae up to 4 days after infection. Whereas the attenuated phenotype of the oprF mutant was associated with a rapid elimination of bacteria, the mgtC mutant was able to persist at low level, a feature also observed with the wild-type strain in surviving larvae. Interestingly, these persistent bacteria can be visualized in macrophages of zebrafish. In a short-time infection model using a macrophage cell line, electron microscopy revealed that internalized P. aeruginosa wild-type bacteria were either released after macrophage lysis or remained intracellularly, where they were localized in vacuoles or in the cytoplasm. The mgtC mutant could also be detected inside macrophages, but without causing cell damage, whereas the oprF mutant was almost completely eliminated after phagocytosis, or localized in phagolysosomes. Taken together, our results show that the main role of OprF for intramacrophage survival impacts both acute and persistent infection by this bacterium. On the other hand, MgtC plays a clear role in acute infection but is not essential for bacterial persistence, in relation with the finding that the mgtC mutant is not completely eliminated by macrophages.

Structure-based design, synthesis and biological evaluation of a NAD+ analogue targeting Pseudomonas aeruginosa NAD kinase.

Multidrug resistance is a major public health problem that requires the urgent development of new antibiotics and therefore the identification of novel bacterial targets. The activity of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide kinase, NADK, is essential in all bacteria tested so far, including many human pathogens that display antibiotic resistance leading to the failure of current treatments. Inhibiting NADK is therefore a promising and innovative antibacterial strategy since there is currently no drug on the market targeting this enzyme. Through a fragment-based drug design approach, we have recently developed a NAD+ -competitive inhibitor of NADKs, which displayed in vivo activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Here, we show that this compound, a di-adenosine derivative, is inactive against the NADK enzyme from the Gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PaNADK). This lack of activity can be explained by the crystal structure of PaNADK, which was determined in complex with NADP+ in this study. Structural analysis led us to design and synthesize a benzamide adenine dinucleoside analogue, active against PaNADK. This novel compound efficiently inhibited PaNADK enzymatic activity in vitro with a Ki of 4.6 µm. Moreover, this compound reduced P. aeruginosa infection in vivo in a zebrafish model.

The C-terminal domain of the virulence factor MgtC is a divergent ACT domain.

MgtC is a virulence factor of unknown function important for survival inside macrophages in several intracellular bacterial pathogens, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is also involved in adaptation to Mg(2+) deprivation, but previous work suggested that MgtC is not a Mg(2+) transporter. In this study, we demonstrated that the amount of the M. tuberculosis MgtC protein is not significantly increased by Mg(2+) deprivation. Members of the MgtC protein family share a conserved membrane N-terminal domain and a more divergent cytoplasmic C-terminal domain. To get insights into MgtC functional and structural organization, we have determined the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) structure of the C-terminal domain of M. tuberculosis MgtC. This structure is not affected by the Mg(2+) concentration, indicating that it does not bind Mg(2+). The structure of the C-terminal domain forms a ßαßßαß fold found in small molecule binding domains called ACT domains. However, the M. tuberculosis MgtC ACT domain differs from canonical ACT domains because it appears to lack the ability to dimerize and to bind small molecules. We have shown, using a bacterial two-hybrid system, that the M. tuberculosis MgtC protein can dimerize and that the C-terminal domain somehow facilitates this dimerization. Taken together, these results indicate that M. tuberculosis MgtC does not have an intrinsic function related to Mg(2+) uptake or binding but could act as a regulatory factor based on protein-protein interaction that could be facilitated by its ACT domain.

Peptide-assisted degradation of the Salmonella MgtC virulence factor.

MgtC is a virulence factor common to several intracellular pathogens that is required for intramacrophage survival and growth in magnesium-depleted medium. In Salmonella enterica, MgtC is coexpressed with the MgtB magnesium transporter and transcription of the mgtCB operon is induced by magnesium deprivation. Despite the high level of mgtCB transcriptional induction in magnesium-depleted medium, the MgtC protein is hardly detected in a wild-type Salmonella strain. Here, we show that downregulation of MgtC expression is dependent on a hydrophobic peptide, MgtR, which is encoded by the mgtCB operon. Our results suggest that MgtR promotes MgtC degradation by the FtsH protease, providing a negative regulatory feedback. Bacterial two-hybrid assays demonstrate that MgtR interacts with the inner-membrane MgtC protein. We identified mutant derivatives of MgtR and MgtC that prevent both regulation and interaction between the two partners. In macrophages, overexpression of the MgtR peptide led to a decrease of the replication rate of Salmonella. This study highlights the role of peptides in bacterial regulatory mechanisms and provides a natural antagonist of the MgtC virulence factor.

Phylogenetic and functional analysis of Aspergillus fumigatus MGTC, a fungal protein homologous to a bacterial virulence factor.

MgtC is important for the survival of several bacterial pathogens in macrophages and for growth under magnesium limitation. Among eukaryotes, a gene homologous to mgtC was found only in the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. Our data show that the A. fumigatus MgtC (AfuMgtC) protein does not have the same function as the bacterial MgtC proteins.

Zebrafish Embryo Infection Model to Investigate Pseudomonas aeruginosa Interaction With Innate Immunity and Validate New Therapeutics.

The opportunistic human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is responsible for a variety of acute infections and is a major cause of mortality in chronically infected patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Considering the intrinsic and acquired resistance of P. aeruginosa to currently used antibiotics, new therapeutic strategies against this pathogen are urgently needed. Whereas virulence factors of P. aeruginosa are well characterized, the interplay between P. aeruginosa and the innate immune response during infection remains unclear. Zebrafish embryo is now firmly established as a potent vertebrate model for the study of infectious human diseases, due to strong similarities of its innate immune system with that of humans and the unprecedented possibilities of non-invasive real-time imaging. This model has been successfully developed to investigate the contribution of bacterial and host factors involved in P. aeruginosa pathogenesis, as well as rapidly assess the efficacy of anti-Pseudomonas molecules. Importantly, zebrafish embryo appears as the state-of-the-art model to address in vivo the contribution of innate immunity in the outcome of P. aeruginosa infection. Of interest, is the finding that the zebrafish encodes a CFTR channel closely related to human CFTR, which allowed to develop a model to address P. aeruginosa pathogenesis, innate immune response, and treatment evaluation in a CF context.

How Pathogens Feel and Overcome Magnesium Limitation When in Host Tissues.

Host organisms utilize nutritional immunity to limit the availability of nutrients essential to an invading pathogen. Nutrients may include amino acids, nucleotide bases, and transition metals, the essentiality of which varies among pathogens. The mammalian macrophage protein Slc11a1 (previously Nramp1) mediates resistance to several intracellular pathogens. Slc11a1 is proposed to restrict growth of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in host tissues by causing magnesium deprivation. This is intriguing because magnesium is the most abundant divalent cation in all living cells. A pathogen's response to factors such as Slc11a1 that promote nutritional immunity may therefore reflect what the pathogen 'feels' in its cytoplasm, rather than the nutrient concentration in host cell compartments.

A Novel Infection Protocol in Zebrafish Embryo to Assess Pseudomonas aeruginosa Virulence and Validate Efficacy of a Quorum Sensing Inhibitor In Vivo.

The opportunistic human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is responsible for a variety of acute infections and is a major cause of mortality in chronically infected cystic fibrosis patients. Due to increased resistance to antibiotics, new therapeutic strategies against P. aeruginosa are urgently needed. In this context, we aimed to develop a simple vertebrate animal model to rapidly assess in vivo drug efficacy against P. aeruginosa. Zebrafish are increasingly considered for modeling human infections caused by bacterial pathogens, which are commonly microinjected in embryos. In the present study, we established a novel protocol for zebrafish infection by P. aeruginosa based on bath immersion in 96-well plates of tail-injured embryos. The immersion method, followed by a 48-hour survey of embryo viability, was first validated to assess the virulence of P. aeruginosa wild-type PAO1 and a known attenuated mutant. We then validated its relevance for antipseudomonal drug testing by first using a clinically used antibiotic, ciprofloxacin. Secondly, we used a novel quorum sensing (QS) inhibitory molecule, N-(2-pyrimidyl)butanamide (C11), the activity of which had been validated in vitro but not previously tested in any animal model. A significant protective effect of C11 was observed on infected embryos, supporting the ability of C11 to attenuate in vivo P. aeruginosa pathogenicity. In conclusion, we present here a new and reliable method to compare the virulence of P. aeruginosa strains in vivo and to rapidly assess the efficacy of clinically relevant drugs against P. aeruginosa, including new antivirulence compounds.

Phylogenetic Groups and Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in Escherichia coli from Different Meat Species.

Escherichia coli isolated from meat of different animal species may harbour antimicrobial resistance genes and may thus be a threat to human health. The objectives of this study were to define antimicrobial resistance genes in E. coli isolates from pork, beef, chicken- and turkey meat and analyse whether their resistance genotypes associated with phylogenetic groups or meat species. A total number of 313 E. coli samples were isolated using standard cultural techniques. In 98% of resistant isolates, a dedicated resistance gene could be identified by PCR. Resistance genes detected were tet(A) and tet(B) for tetracycline resistance, strA and aadA1 for streptomycin resistance, sulI and sulII for resistance against sulphonamides, dfr and aphA for kanamycin resistance and blaTEM for ampicillin resistance. One stx1 harbouring E. coli isolated from pork harboured the tet(A) gene and belonged to phylogenetic group B2, whilst another stx1 positive isolate from beef was multi-resistant and tested positive for blaTEM,aphA, strA-B, sulII, and tet(A) and belonged to phylogenetic group A. In conclusion, the distribution of resistance elements was almost identical and statistically indifferent in isolates of different meat species. Phylogenetic groups did not associate with the distribution of resistance genes and a rather low number of diverse resistance genes were detected. Most E. coli populations with different resistance genes against one drug often revealed statistically significant different MIC values.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa OprF plays a role in resistance to macrophage clearance during acute infection.

While considered an extracellular pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been reported to be engulfed by macrophages in cellular and animal models. However, the role of macrophages in P. aeruginosa clearance in vivo remains poorly studied. The major outer membrane porin OprF has been recently shown to be involved in P. aeruginosa fate within cultured macrophages and analysis of an oprF mutant may thus provide insights to better understand the relevance of this intramacrophage stage during infection. In the present study, we investigated for the first time the virulence of a P. aeruginosa oprF mutant in a vertebrate model that harbors functional macrophages, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo, which offers powerful tools to address macrophage-pathogen interactions. We established that P. aeruginosa oprF mutant is attenuated in zebrafish embryos in a macrophage-dependent manner. Visualization and quantification of P. aeruginosa bacteria phagocytosed by macrophages after injection into closed cavities suggested that the attenuated phenotype of oprF mutant is not linked to higher macrophage recruitment nor better phagocytosis than wild-type strain. Using cultured macrophages, we showed an intramacrophage survival defect of P. aeruginosa oprF mutant, which is correlated with elevated association of bacteria with acidic compartments. Notably, treatment of embryos with bafilomycin, an inhibitor of acidification, increased the sensibility of embryos towards both wild-type and oprF mutant, and partially suppressed the attenuation of oprF mutant. Taken together, this work supports zebrafish embryo as state-of-the-art model to address in vivo the relevance of P. aeruginosa intramacrophage stage. Our results highlight the contribution of macrophages in the clearance of P. aeruginosa during acute infection and suggest that OprF protects P. aeruginosa against macrophage clearance by avoiding bacterial elimination in acidified phagosomes.

Hydrophobic peptides: novel regulators within bacterial membrane.

Identification of short coding sequences is challenging, both experimentally and in silico, and functional natural peptides (< 50 amino acids) have to a large extent been overlooked in Gram-negative bacteria. Recent results have converged to highlight the role of hydrophobic peptides that form a novel class of active molecules in Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. These peptides can play a regulatory role by interacting with protein partners at the inner membrane and by modulating protein partner activity or stability. Genome-wide analyses in both bacterial species have identified several conserved short open reading frames encoding a single transmembrane segment. We discuss the known and predicted membrane-associated peptides and the tools for their identification. Besides the identification of novel regulatory networks, characterization of peptides with a single transmembrane helix segment and proteins that interact with them provides a powerful opportunity to study interactions between alpha helices within biological membranes. In addition, some bioactive membrane peptides could provide a basis for engineering membrane protein antagonists.

Dosage effect on uropathogenic Escherichia coli anti-adhesion activity in urine following consumption of cranberry powder standardized for proanthocyanidin content: a multicentric randomized double blind study.

BACKGROUND: Ingestion of cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.) has traditionally been utilized for prevention of urinary tract infections. The proanthocyanidins (PACs) in cranberry, in particular the A-type linkages have been implicated as important inhibitors of primarily P-fimbriated E. coli adhesion to uroepithelial cells. Additional experiments were required to investigate the persistence in urine samples over a broader time period, to determine the most effective dose per day and to determine if the urinary anti-adhesion effect following cranberry is detected within volunteers of different origins. METHODS: Two separate bioassays (a mannose-resistant hemagglutination assay and an original new human T24 epithelial cell-line assay) have assessed the ex-vivo urinary bacterial anti-adhesion activity on urines samples collected from 32 volunteers from Japan, Hungary, Spain and France in a randomized, double-blind versus placebo study. An in vivo Caenorhabditis elegans model was used to evaluate the influence of cranberry regimen on the virulence of E. coli strain. RESULTS: The results indicated a significant bacterial anti-adhesion activity in urine samples collected from volunteers that consumed cranberry powder compared to placebo (p < 0.001). This inhibition was clearly dose-dependent, prolonged (until 24 h with 72 mg of PAC) and increasing with the amount of PAC equivalents consumed in each cranberry powder regimen. An in vivo Caenorhabditis elegans model showed that cranberry acted against bacterial virulence: E. coli strain presented a reduced ability to kill worms after a growth in urines samples of patients who took cranberry capsules. This effect is particularly important with the regimen of 72 mg of PAC. CONCLUSIONS: Administration of PAC-standardized cranberry powder at dosages containing 72 mg of PAC per day may offer some protection against bacterial adhesion and virulence in the urinary tract. This effect may offer a nyctohemeral protection.

Activity of a Synthetic Peptide Targeting MgtC on Pseudomonas aeruginosa Intramacrophage Survival and Biofilm Formation.

Antivirulence strategies aim to target pathogenicity factors while bypassing the pressure on the bacterium to develop resistance. The MgtC membrane protein has been proposed as an attractive target that is involved in the ability of several major bacterial pathogens, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, to survive inside macrophages. In liquid culture, P. aeruginosa MgtC acts negatively on biofilm formation. However, a putative link between these two functions of MgtC in P. aeruginosa has not been experimentally addressed. In the present study, we first investigated the contribution of exopolysaccharides (EPS) in the intramacrophage survival defect and biofilm increase of mgtC mutant. Within infected macrophages, expression of EPS genes psl and alg was increased in a P. aeruginosa mgtC mutant strain comparatively to wild-type strain. However, the intramacrophage survival defect of mgtC mutant was not rescued upon introduction of psl or alg mutation, suggesting that MgtC intramacrophage role is unrelated to EPS production, whereas the increased biofilm formation of mgtC mutant was partially suppressed by introduction of psl mutation. We aimed to develop an antivirulence strategy targeting MgtC, by taking advantage of a natural antagonistic peptide, MgtR. Heterologous expression of mgtR in P. aeruginosa PAO1 was shown to reduce its ability to survive within macrophages. We investigated for the first time the biological effect of a synthetic MgtR peptide on P. aeruginosa. Exogenously added synthetic MgtR peptide lowered the intramacrophage survival of wild-type P. aeruginosa PAO1, thus mimicking the phenotype of an mgtC mutant as well as the effect of endogenously produced MgtR peptide. In correlation with this finding, addition of MgtR peptide to bacterial culture strongly reduced MgtC protein level, without reducing bacterial growth or viability, thus differing from classical antimicrobial peptides. On the other hand, the addition of exogenous MgtR peptide did not affect significantly biofilm formation, indicating an action toward EPS-independent phenotype rather than EPS-related phenotype. Cumulatively, our results show an antivirulence action of synthetic MgtR peptide, which may be more potent against acute infection, and provide a proof of concept for further exploitation of anti-Pseudomonas strategies.

Synthetic hydrophobic peptides derived from MgtR weaken Salmonella pathogenicity and work with a different mode of action than endogenously produced peptides.

Due to the antibiotic resistance crisis, novel therapeutic strategies need to be developed against bacterial pathogens. Hydrophobic bacterial peptides (small proteins under 50 amino acids) have emerged as regulatory molecules that can interact with bacterial membrane proteins to modulate their activity and/or stability. Among them, the Salmonella MgtR peptide promotes the degradation of MgtC, a virulence factor involved in Salmonella intramacrophage replication, thus providing the basis for an antivirulence strategy. We demonstrate here that endogenous overproduction of MgtR reduced Salmonella replication inside macrophages and lowered MgtC protein level, whereas a peptide variant of MgtR (MgtR-S17I), which does not interact with MgtC, had no effect. We then used synthetic peptides to evaluate their action upon exogenous addition. Unexpectedly, upon addition of synthetic peptides, both MgtR and its variant MgtR-S17I reduced Salmonella intramacrophage replication and lowered MgtC and MgtB protein levels, suggesting a different mechanism of action of exogenously added peptides versus endogenously produced peptides. The synthetic peptides did not act by reducing bacterial viability. We next tested their effect on various recombinant proteins produced in Escherichia coli and showed that the level of several inner membrane proteins was strongly reduced upon addition of both peptides, whereas cytoplasmic or outer membrane proteins remained unaffected. Moreover, the α-helical structure of synthetic MgtR is important for its biological activity, whereas helix-helix interacting motif is dispensable. Cumulatively, these results provide perspectives for new antivirulence strategies with the use of peptides that act by reducing the level of inner membrane proteins, including virulence factors.

MgtC: a key player in intramacrophage survival.

Several bacterial pathogens have evolved strategies to survive in macrophages and create a replicative niche within phagosomes. The bacterial factor MgtC is a key player in intramacrophage survival, being important for virulence in diverse intracellular pathogens. MgtC is also required for growth under magnesium limitation. Recent studies provide new clues on the role of MgtC in macrophages, which seems to be unlinked to adaptation to a low Mg(2+) microenvironment. In addition, we discuss the unexpected finding that MgtC modulates host P-type ATPase activity.

Molecular evolution of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and pathogenic Escherichia coli: from pathogenesis to therapeutics.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) and certain Escherichia coli are human pathogens that have evolved through the acquisition of multiple virulence determinants by horizontal gene transfer. Similar genetic elements, as pathogenicity islands and virulence plasmids, have driven molecular evolution of virulence in both species. In addition, the contribution of prophages has been recently highlighted as a reservoir for pathogenic diversity. Characterization of horizontally acquired virulence genes has several clinical implications. First, identification of virulence determinants that have a sporadic distribution and are specifically associated with a pathotype and/or a pathology can be useful markers for risk assessment and diagnosis. Secondly, virulence factors widely distributed in pathogenic strains, but absent from non-pathogenic bacteria, are interesting targets for the development of novel antimicrobial chemotherapies and vaccines. Here, we summarize the horizontally acquired virulence factors of S. Typhimurium, enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7 and uropathogenic E. coli, and we describe their use in novel therapeutic approaches.