In situ measurements of the physical characteristics of Titan's environment.

On the basis of previous ground-based and fly-by information, we knew that Titan's atmosphere was mainly nitrogen, with some methane, but its temperature and pressure profiles were poorly constrained because of uncertainties in the detailed composition. The extent of atmospheric electricity ('lightning') was also hitherto unknown. Here we report the temperature and density profiles, as determined by the Huygens Atmospheric Structure Instrument (HASI), from an altitude of 1,400 km down to the surface. In the upper part of the atmosphere, the temperature and density were both higher than expected. There is a lower ionospheric layer between 140 km and 40 km, with electrical conductivity peaking near 60 km. We may also have seen the signature of lightning. At the surface, the temperature was 93.65 +/- 0.25 K, and the pressure was 1,467 +/- 1 hPa.

Organic synthesis in experimental impact shocks.

Laboratory simulations of shocks created with a high-energy laser demonstrate that the efficacy of organic production depends on the molecular, not just the elemental composition of the shocked gas. In a methane-rich mixture that simulates a low-temperature equilibrium mixture of cometary material, hydrogen cyanide and acetylene were produced with yields of 5 x 10(17) molecules per joule. Repeated shocking of the methane-rich mixture produced amine groups, suggesting the possible synthesis of amino acids. No organic molecules were produced in a carbon dioxide-rich mixture, which is at odds with thermodynamic equilibrium approaches to shock chemistry and has implications for the modeling of shock-produced organic molecules on early Earth.

Effects of nitrogen-deficiency on efficiency of light-harvesting apparatus in radish.

Nitrogen starvation has been stated to reduce chlorophyll a and accessory pigments, decrease photosynthetic efficiency, as well as modify chloroplast thylakoid membranes. However, the impact of N-deficiency on light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis has not been well understood. In this study, efficiency and structure of light-harvesting complex under N-deficiency conditions were investigated in two radish cultivars (Raphanus sativus var. sativus 'Fluo HF1' and 'Suntella F1'). Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis were investigated by measuring in vivo chlorophyll a prompt fluorescence signal. Acquired data were utilised in two ways: by plotting fast induction curves and calculating OJIP-test biophysical parameters. Detailed analysis of difference curves as well as OJIP-test results showed that major disturbances were associated with photosystem II and its subunits, including decoupling of light-harvesting complexes, dysfunction of oxygen-evolving complex, and reaction centres inactivation. The maximum quantum yield of photosystem II primary photochemistry was severely restricted, causing an inhibition in electron transport through successive protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane. Structural changes were demonstrated by recording images using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). TEM investigations showed intensive starch accumulation under N-deficiency. Rare thylakoid stacks distributed in tiny layers of stroma around grains and chloroplast periphery were observed in cells of N-deficient plants. The application of principal component analysis (PCA) on OJIP-test results allowed characterizing the dynamics of stress response and separating parameters according to their influence on plants stress response. 'Suntella F1' genotype was found to be more sensitive to nitrogen deficiency as compared to 'Fluo HF1' genotype.

Time resolved simulation of lightning by lip.

In this letter, we report results of time resolved spectra of lightning simulation in air by laser-induced plasma (LIP). The measured electron temperatures varied from (1.7 +/- 0.1)X10(4) K at 600 ns to (1.2 +/- 0.1)X10(4)K at 4 microseconds after the ignition of the plasma. Electron densities in the plasma varied from (7.0 +/- 1.4)X10(17)/cm3 to (9.0 +/- 1.8)X10(16)/cm3 for the above times. We also present, for the first time, a comparison of state variables for LIP and natural lightning. We find that immediately following the ignition both natural lightning and LIP reach temperatures in excess of 16,000K and relax to ambient pressure with different rates. They are expected to approach 2000 - 4000 K temperature range, which is important to chemical synthesis, in an asymptotically similar fashion.

[A case of coexistence of polycystic ovary syndrome and ovarian carcinoma]. / Przypadek wspólistnienia zespolu policystycznych jajników i raka jajnika.

There was a case of carcinoma of the ovary that coexisted with PCO syndrome in young, 25 years old woman. After clinical examination and USG doctors suspected PCO syndrome and hydrosalpings that is why the patient underwent an operation. In intraoperative histopathological examination bilateral adenocarcinoma were found. In prophylactic examination of patient's mother ovarian tumour was found that is also turned out to be an adenocarcinoma.

[The use of ultrasonographic studies in the early detection of ovarian tumors]. / Przydatnosc badania ultrasonograficznego we wczesnym wykrywaniu nowotworów jajnika.

In this report the authors have analyzed and presented the results of his 7 years-long research focused on estimating the usefulness of ultrasonography in diagnosing adnexal pathology. Special attention was devoted to: 1. specifying location of change, establishing whether it covered one or two of the ovaries, 2. asserting the extend of change, 3. finding whether the tumor was well capsuled or not and whether the papillary projections were present and if so, establishing if they were endo- or egzofitic, 4. estimating its structure (cystic, solid, partly cystic partly solid) and establishing the presence of calcification, 5. evaluating metastases presence (in uterus, true pelvis, omentum, liver and the lymph nodes), 6 ascites assessment. There were 341 females who underwent examination before operation between 1991-1997 who were suspected of ovarian tumors and whose status was operationally verified. Results of this research were statistically analyzed. This analysis covered the calculating of mean and standard deviation, the frequency of special category presence and conducting evaluation of malignant tumors' presence frequency. On the basis of research results obtained and the statistical analyses performed, the following conclusions have been formulated: 1. Malignant tumors characistically co-exist more frequently with the following ultrasonographics traits: thick capsule of diversified thickness, with irregular outline, solid or partly solid partly cystic structure, unhomogenous internal echogenisity and multilocular character. 2. Ultrasonography is complementary to gynecological examination but allows for earlier detection of small and soft tumors.

Kepler's optical phase curve of the exoplanet HAT-P-7b.

Ten days of photometric data were obtained during the commissioning phase of the Kepler mission, including data for the previously known giant transiting exoplanet HAT-P-7b. The data for HAT-P-7b show a smooth rise and fall of light from the planet as it orbits its star, punctuated by a drop of 130 +/- 11 parts per million in flux when the planet passes behind its star. We interpret this as the phase variation of the dayside thermal emission plus reflected light from the planet as it orbits its star and is occulted. The depth of the occultation is similar in photometric precision to the detection of a transiting Earth-size planet for which the mission was designed.

Kerr-Cell-Shuttered f/1.5 Stigmatic Spectrograph for Nanosecond Exposures.

This paper describes a specially designed high-speed spectrograph that routinely provides information on the spatial distribution of the electron density of the gas flow in a high-performance shock tube. The instrument has a measured resolution of 1.5 A, a camera of f/1.5 aperture, and records the 3900-6700-A spectral region in a single 200 nsec exposure. Special features of the instrument include Kovar spacing plates for temperature compensation, orthogonal grating adjustments for quick alinement, a split-image view finder for focusing, and modular construction to allow different cameras and gratings to be vised. Spatially resolved spectra, obtained with this instrument, of 15-km/sec shock waves traveling in air are presented.

Optical efficiencies of lightning in planetary atmospheres.

Spacecraft observations show that the presence of lightning activity is not confined to the terrestrial atmosphere, but is also found in the atmospheres of Venus, Jupiter and Saturn. Lightning activity may also occur in Titan's thick atmosphere. Calculations show that lightning produces a significant fraction of the nitric oxide that reacts with the ozone and chlorine compounds in the terrestrial stratosphere. In the atmosphere of the primordial Earth, lightning could have been the major source of many of the molecules required for the formation of life. To determine the effects of lightning activity in the atmospheres of other planets from spacecraft images requires a knowledge of the optical properties of the lightning discharge. Here we report the first simulations of lightning in planetary atmospheres by laser-induced plasmas. These simulations show that the fraction of the energy in lightning discharge channels that is radiated in the visible spectrum is similar for Earth, Venus and Titan, but quite different for Jupiter. One implication of our results is that the amount of trace gases produced by lightning in the jovian atmosphere must be larger than previously estimated.

Lightning production of hydrocarbons and HCN on Titan: laboratory measurements.

Many hydrocarbon species have been detected in the atmosphere of Titan. It is possible that lightning activity is occurring in the troposphere and that it contributes to the hydrocarbon inventory. Measurements of the chemical yields of hydrogen cyanide, acetylene, ethylene, ethane, and propane from simulated lightning discharges are reported. A comparison of the experimental results with those based on thermodynamic equilibrium assumptions shows significant disagreement and implies that theories based solely on thermodynamic equilibrium are inadequate. Although photochemistry and charged particle chemistry occurring in the stratosphere can account for many of the observed hydrocarbon species, the predicted abundance of ethylene is too low by a factor of 10 to 40. While some ethylene will be produced by charged-particle chemistry, the production of ethylene by lightning and its subsequent diffusion into the stratosphere appears to be an adequate source.

Spectra of simulated lightning on Venus, Jupiter, and Titan.

Laser-induced plasmas in various gas mixtures were used to simulate lightning in other planetary atmospheres. This method of simulation has the advantage of producing short-duration, high-temperature plasmas free from electrode contamination. The laser-induced plasma discharges in air are shown to accurately simulate terrestrial lightning and can be expected to simulate lightning spectra in other planetary atmospheres. Spectra from 240 to 880 nm are presented for simulated lightning in the atmospheres of Venus, Earth, Jupiter, and Titan. The spectra of lightning on the other giant planets are expected to be similar to that of Jupiter because the atmospheres of these planets are composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. The spectra of Venus and Titan show substantial amounts of radiation due to the presence of carbon atoms and ions and show CN Violet radiation. Although small amounts of CH4 and NH3 are present in the Jovian atmosphere, only emission from hydrogen and helium is observed. Most differences in the spectra can be understood in terms of the elemental ratios of the gas mixtures. Consequently, observations of the spectra of lightning on other planets should provide in situ estimates of the atmospheric and aerosol composition in the cloud layers in which lightning is occurring. In particular, the detection of inert gases such as helium should be possible and the relative abundance of these gases compared to major constituents might be determined.

High-temperature shock formation of N2 and organics on primordial Titan.

Titan's atmosphere is composed primarily of N2 with a little methane and other organic molecules. But theoretical models suggest that the initial form of nitrogen in Titan's atmosphere may have been NH3. We have investigated the possible importance of strong shocks produced during high-velocity impacts accompanying the late states of accretion as a method for converting NH3 to N2. To simulate the effects of an impact in Titan's atmosphere we have used the focused beam of a high-power laser, a method that has been shown to simulate shock phenomena. For mixtures of 10%, 50% and 90% NH3 (balance CH4) we obtained yields of 0.25, 1, and 6 x 10(17) molecules of N2 per joule, respectively. We also find that the yield of HCN is comparable to that for N2. In addition, several other hydrocarbons are produced, many with yields in excess of theoretical high-temperature-equilibrium models. The above yields, when combined with models of the satellite's accretion, result in a total N2 production comparable to that present in Titan's atmosphere and putative ocean.

Power meter for optical efficiency measurements of laser-induced plasmas.

A power meter was constructed to measure the power being deposited in transient laser-induced plasmas (LIP). The design rejects the radiation scattered from the laser beam by the LIP and that transmitted past the LIP. The power meter is constructed from a small metal-capped flask placed in an evacuated chamber. The steady-state heat production in the flask is determined from measurements of the temperature gradient on a thermal resistance connecting the top of the flask with a heat sink. The design worked well and should be applicable to a wide variety of situations if the dimensions of the system are adjusted to compensate for power levels substantially different from those used here.

Production of organic compounds in plasmas: a comparison among electric sparks, laser-induced plasmas, and UV light.

The chemistry in planetary atmospheres that is induced by processes associated with high-temperature plasmas is of broad interest because such processes may explain many of the chemical species observed. There are at least two important phenomena that are known to generate plasmas (and shocks) in planetary atmospheres: lightning and meteor impacts. For both phenomena, rapid heating of atmospheric gases leads to formation of a high-temperature plasma which emits radiation and produces shock waves that propagate through the surrounding atmosphere. These processes initiate chemical reactions that can transform simple gases into more complex compounds. In order to study the production of organic compounds in plasmas (shocks), various mixtures of N2, CH4, and H2, modeling the atmosphere of Titan, were exposed to discrete sparks, laser-induced plasmas (LIP), an ultraviolet radiation. The yields of HCN and several simple hydrocarbons were measured by gas chromatography and compared to those calculated from a simple quenched thermodynamic equilibrium model. The agreement between experiment and theory was fair for HCN and C2H2. However, the agreement for C2H6 and the other hydrocarbons was poor, indicating that a more comprehensive theory is needed. Our experiments suggest that photolysis by ultraviolet light from the plasma is an important process in the synthesis. This was confirmed by the photolysis of gas samples exposed to the light but not to the shock waves emitted by the sparks. Hence, the results of these experiments demonstrate that the thermodynamic equilibrium theory does not adequately model lightning and meteor impacts and that photolysis must be included. Finally, the similarity in yields between the spark and the LIP experiments suggest that LIP provide valid and clean simulations of lightning and meteor impacts and that photolysis must be included. Finally, the similarity in yields between the spark and the LIP experiments suggests that LIP provide valid and clean simulations of lightning in planetary atmospheres.