Differential Developmental Associations of Material Hardship Exposure and Adolescent Amygdala-Prefrontal Cortex White Matter Connectivity.

Accumulating literature has linked poverty to brain structure and function, particularly in affective neural regions; however, few studies have examined associations with structural connections or the importance of developmental timing of exposure. Moreover, prior neuroimaging studies have not used a proximal measure of poverty (i.e., material hardship, which assesses food, housing, and medical insecurity) to capture the lived experience of growing up in harsh economic conditions. The present investigation addressed these gaps collectively by examining the associations between material hardship (ages 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15 years) and white matter connectivity of frontolimbic structures (age 15 years) in a low-income sample. We applied probabilistic tractography to diffusion imaging data collected from 194 adolescents. Results showed that material hardship related to amygdala-prefrontal, but not hippocampus-prefrontal or hippocampus-amygdala, white matter connectivity. Specifically, hardship during middle childhood (ages 5 and 9 years) was associated with greater connectivity between the amygdala and dorsomedial pFC, whereas hardship during adolescence (age 15 years) was related to reduced amygdala-orbitofrontal (OFC) and greater amygdala-subgenual ACC connectivity. Growth curve analyses showed that greater increases of hardship across time were associated with both greater (amygdala-subgenual ACC) and reduced (amygdala-OFC) white matter connectivity. Furthermore, these effects remained above and beyond other types of adversity, and greater hardship and decreased amygdala-OFC connectivity were related to increased anxiety and depressive symptoms. Results demonstrate that the associations between material hardship and white matter connections differ across key prefrontal regions and developmental periods, providing support for potential windows of plasticity for structural circuits that support emotion processing.

Intergenerational Economic Mobility for Low-Income Parents and Their Children: A Dual Developmental Science Framework.

In this review we bring a psychological perspective to the issue of intergenerational economic mobility. More specifically, we present a new dual developmental science framework to consider the educational outcomes of parents and children together in order to foster economic mobility. We focus on two key populations: children in early childhood (from birth to age 6) and parents in early adulthood (in their 20s and early 30s). We posit that mastery of three sets of developmental tasks for each generation-academic/language skills, self-regulation/mental health, and parent-child relationship-will lead to improved educational outcomes for both. Taken as a whole, the dual developmental science framework integrates theory and research on single-generation development (i.e., children or parents) with dynamic and bidirectional theories about the interdependence of children and parents over time.We conclude the review by evaluating existing education interventions and research using the dual developmental science framework, and we discuss opportunities for innovation.

Prospective longitudinal associations between harsh parenting and corticolimbic function during adolescence.

Childhood adversity is thought to undermine youth socioemotional development via altered neural function within regions that support emotion processing. These effects are hypothesized to be developmentally specific, with adversity in early childhood sculpting subcortical structures (e.g., amygdala) and adversity during adolescence impacting later-developing structures (e.g., prefrontal cortex; PFC). However, little work has tested these theories directly in humans. Using prospectively collected longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) (N = 4,144) and neuroimaging data from a subsample of families recruited in adolescence (N = 162), the current study investigated the trajectory of harsh parenting across childhood (i.e., ages 3 to 9) and how initial levels versus changes in harsh parenting across childhood were associated with corticolimbic activation and connectivity during socioemotional processing. Harsh parenting in early childhood (indexed by the intercept term from a linear growth curve model) was associated with less amygdala, but not PFC, reactivity to angry facial expressions. In contrast, change in harsh parenting across childhood (indexed by the slope term) was associated with less PFC, but not amygdala, activation to angry faces. Increases in, but not initial levels of, harsh parenting were also associated with stronger positive amygdala-PFC connectivity during angry face processing.

Differential associations of parental harshness and parental disengagement with overall cortisol output at 15 years: Implications for adolescent mental health.

Psychosocial stress in childhood and adolescence is linked to stress system dysregulation, although few studies have examined the relative impacts of parental harshness and parental disengagement. This study prospectively tested whether parental harshness and disengagement show differential associations with overall cortisol output in adolescence. Associations between overall cortisol output and adolescent mental health problems were tested concurrently. Adolescents from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) provided hair samples for cortisol assay at 15 years (N = 171). Caregivers reported on parental harshness and disengagement experiences at 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15 years, and adolescents reported at 15 years. Both parent and adolescent reported depressive and anxiety symptoms and antisocial behaviors at 15. Greater parental harshness from 1-15 years, and harshness reported at 15 years in particular, was associated with higher overall cortisol output at 15. Greater parental disengagement from 1-15 years, and disengagement at 1 year specifically, was associated with lower cortisol output. There were no significant associations between cortisol output and depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, or antisocial behaviors. These results suggest that the unique variances of parental harshness and disengagement may have opposing associations with cortisol output at 15 years, with unclear implications for adolescent mental health.

Home Visiting and Early Childhood Education for Reducing Justice System Involvement.

Early childhood intervention is particularly cost-beneficial when it reduces justice involvement, but ingredients that contribute to this outcome are unknown. The goal of this study was to estimate the effects of two common early childhood intervention ingredients-home visits and center-based education-on juvenile justice involvement. The Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP) randomized 1090 premature and low-birth-weight babies to intervention or control groups. Intervention group families were offered home visits from birth to age 3 years and high-quality center-based early childhood education from ages 1 to 3 years, but varied in their take-up of each intervention component. We estimated (1) intent-to-treat effects and (2) the effects of families' level of participation in each intervention component, using a novel stratification approach to minimize the impact of self-selection bias on dosage. Outcomes were children's risk of being stopped by police, arrested, or incarcerated, by age 18 years. Intent-to-treat analyses showed no effects of the IHDP for both sexes combined, nor for girls only, on any of the three outcomes, but there was an intent-to-treat effect on boys' risk of being arrested, OR = 0.43 (95% CI 0.24, 0.76). Analyses of dosage effects showed that, for both sexes combined, participation in the center-based educational component decreased the odds of being stopped by the police by 3% for each month of services. For boys only, the odds of being arrested decreased by 4% with each month of home visits and by 4% with each month of center-based educational services. We conclude that high-quality center-based early childhood education and, to some extent, home visits, reduce justice involvement among biologically vulnerable children, especially boys.

Impact of a Family Economic Intervention (Bridges) on Health Functioning of Adolescents Orphaned by HIV/AIDS: A 5-Year (2012-2017) Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial in Uganda.

Objectives. To investigate the long-term impacts of a family economic intervention on physical, mental, and sexual health of adolescents orphaned by AIDS in Uganda.Methods. Students in grades 5 and 6 from 48 primary schools in Uganda were randomly assigned at the school level (cluster randomization) to 1 of 3 conditions: (1) control (n = 487; 16 schools), (2) Bridges (1:1 savings match rate; n = 396; 16 schools), or (3) Bridges PLUS (2:1 savings match rate; n = 500; 16 schools).Results. At 24 months, compared with participants in the control condition, Bridges and Bridges PLUS participants reported higher physical health scores, lower depressive symptoms, and higher self-concept and self-efficacy. During the same period, Bridges participants reported lower sexual risk-taking intentions compared with the other 2 study conditions. At 48 months, Bridges and Bridges PLUS participants reported better self-rated health, higher savings, and lower food insecurity. During the same period, Bridges PLUS participants reported reduced hopelessness, and greater self-concept and self-efficacy. At 24 and 48 months, Bridges PLUS participants reported higher savings than Bridges participants.Conclusions. Economic interventions targeting families raising adolescents orphaned by AIDS can contribute to long-term positive health and overall well-being of these families.Trial Registration. ClinicalTrials.gov registration no. NCT01447615.

Beyond family-level adversities: Exploring the developmental timing of neighborhood disadvantage effects on the brain.

A growing literature suggests that adversity is associated with later altered brain function, particularly within the corticolimbic system that supports emotion processing and salience detection (e.g., amygdala, prefrontal cortex [PFC]). Although neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage has been shown to predict maladaptive behavioral outcomes, particularly for boys, most of the research linking adversity to corticolimbic function has focused on family-level adversities. Moreover, although animal models and studies of normative brain development suggest that there may be sensitive periods during which adversity exerts stronger effects on corticolimbic development, little prospective evidence exists in humans. Using two low-income samples of boys (n = 167; n = 77), Census-derived neighborhood disadvantage during early childhood, but not adolescence, was uniquely associated with greater amygdala, but not PFC, reactivity to ambiguous neutral faces in adolescence and young adulthood. These associations remained after accounting for several family-level adversities (e.g., low family income, harsh parenting), highlighting the independent and developmentally specific neural effects of the neighborhood context. Furthermore, in both samples, indicators measuring income and poverty status of neighbors were predictive of amygdala function, suggesting that neighborhood economic resources may be critical to brain development.

Government Assistance Protects Low-Income Families from Eviction.

A lack of affordable housing is a pressing issue for many low-income American families and can lead to eviction from their homes. Housing assistance programs to address this problem include public housing and other assistance, including vouchers, through which a government agency offsets the cost of private market housing. This paper assesses whether the receipt of either category of assistance reduces the probability that a family will be evicted from their home in the subsequent six years. Because no randomized trial has assessed these effects, we use observational data and formalize the conditions under which a causal interpretation is warranted. Families living in public housing experience less eviction conditional on pre-treatment variables. We argue that this evidence points toward a causal conclusion that assistance, particularly public housing, protects families from eviction.

Early Impacts of Room to Grow: A Multifaceted Intervention Supporting Parents and Children Age Zero to Three.

Children experiencing poverty or low incomes fare worse than their more advantaged peers on a host of developmental and educational outcomes. Interventions have focused on strengthening parenting in families with young children, when supports appear to be most critical. But most parenting programs for low-income families fail to address parents' economic needs, which almost always take precedence relative to broader educational or developmental goals. In this article, we describe the early results of a multifaceted intervention aimed at supporting parents, infants, and toddlers in the first three years of life. The Room to Grow program provides parents, primarily mothers, with support from a clinical social worker, connections to community referrals, and up to $10,000 in material support for the baby in the form of in-kind assistance such as clothes, books, toys, strollers, and other necessities. The current study examines proximal outcomes of the intervention after one year using a randomized controlled trial evaluation design. The study finds that early impacts on proximal outcomes are uniformly positive, especially with regards to the presence of books and developmental goods in the home, developmentally-oriented parenting outcomes, and reduced stress and aggravation in the domain of parenting.

Early Puberty and Telomere Length in Preadolescent Girls and Mothers.

OBJECTIVE: To test the association between early puberty and telomere length in preadolescent girls and mothers from a large representative sample of US females. STUDY DESIGN: We analyzed data from 1194 preadolescent girls and 2421 mothers from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Participants were from a population-based birth cohort (1998-2000) born in large US cities. Telomere length was assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction from saliva samples provided by preadolescent girls and mothers of preadolescent youth. Mothers completed a questionnaire about their child's pubertal development to determine concurrent Tanner stages and provided self-reports of her own age at menarche. Linear regression models were used to estimate the association between pubertal development (status and timing) and telomere length. RESULTS: Early pubertal timing but not pubertal status was associated with shorter telomere length in preadolescent girls (P < .01). Early age at menarche was associated with shorter telomere length in a sample of mothers of preadolescent youth (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Results provide evidence for the association between early puberty and shorter telomeres evidenced by associations in both preadolescent girls and mothers. Future research should address the limitations of this study by using longitudinal measurements of pubertal development assessed through medical examinations and repeated assessments of telomere length to capture telomere attrition.

Diverse Experience of Immigrant Children: How Do Separation and Reunification Shape Their Development?

Although many immigrant children to the United States arrive with their parents, a notable proportion are first separated and later reunited with their parents. How do the experiences of separation and reunification shape the well-being of immigrant children? Data were from a national survey of legal adult immigrants and their families, the New Immigrant Survey from 2003 to 2004 (for academic achievement, age 6-12, N = 876; for psychosocial well-being, age 6-17, N = 1,084). Results indicated that immigrant children who were once separated from their parents exhibited poorer literacy and higher risk of emotional and behavioral problems than those who migrated with parents. A protracted period of separation and previous undocumented status of parents amplified the disadvantages experienced by these children.

Reciprocal Relations Between Maternal Depression and Child Behavior Problems in Families Served by Head Start.

This study used longitudinal cross-lagged modeling to examine reciprocal relations between maternal depression and child behavior problems. Data were drawn from 3,119 children (40% Hispanic, 30% African American, 20% White, and 10% other) from the Family and Child Experiences Survey of 2009 (a nationally representative sample of children served by Head Start). Results documented reciprocal relations between maternal depression and child behavior problems across early childhood (i.e., child age 3-5). Furthermore, the effect of child behavior problems on maternal depression was moderated by child race/ethnicity during children's first year in Head Start, such that the negative effect of child behavior problems on African American mothers' depression was more pronounced compared to Hispanics and other racial/ethnic groups.

A Two-Generation Education Intervention and Children's Attendance in Head Start.

Two-generation human capital programs seek to promote the education of parents and children simultaneously. This study examines relations between family participation in CareerAdvance, which recruits parents of Head Start children into a workforce training program, and children's Head Start attendance. The sample included 293 children (on average 4 years old) and their parents. After one semester, CareerAdvance children demonstrated higher rates of attendance and lower rates of absence and chronic absence (missing 10% or more of school days) than matched comparison children. These associations were similar across a range of high- and low-risk subgroups at baseline. These findings are discussed in terms of the implications of a family systems approach for improving children's Head Start attendance.

Geography of intergenerational mobility and child development.

Recent research by Chetty and colleagues finds that children's chances of upward mobility are affected by the communities in which they grow up [Chetty R, Hendren N (2016) Working paper 23002]. However, the developmental pathways through which communities of origin translate into future economic gain are not well understood. In this paper we examine the association between Chetty and Hendren's county-level measure of intergenerational mobility and children's cognitive and behavioral development. Focusing on children from low-income families, we find that growing up in a county with high upward mobility is associated with fewer externalizing behavioral problems by age 3 years and with substantial gains in cognitive test scores between ages 3 and 9 years. Growing up in a county with 1 SD better intergenerational mobility accounts for ∼20% of the gap in developmental outcomes between children from low- and high-income families. Collectively, our findings suggest that the developmental processes through which residential contexts promote upward mobility begin early in childhood and involve the enrichment of both cognitive and social-emotional development.

Early Parenting and the Intergenerational Transmission of Self-Regulation and Behavior Problems in African American Head Start Families.

The present investigation used a national sample of African American Head Start children (N = 640; Mage = 4.40) to determine whether conditions of socioeconomic disadvantage, particularly poverty, low parent education, and single parent homes were associated with children's executive function (EF; attention and impulse control) and behavior problems (internalizing and externalizing symptoms) via the mediating effects of parent-child interactions. Path models with manifest and latent variables revealed that parent-child interactions (i.e., cognitive stimulation, control, and harsh discipline) mediated the association between socioeconomic disadvantage and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Furthermore, parent cognitive stimulation mediated the association between socioeconomic disadvantage and children's EF skills. The overall pattern of results provides empirical support for the family stress model of development in which conditions of socioeconomic disadvantage exert a significant influence on parent-child interactions and in turn children's emergent self-regulation and behavior problems.

Contributions of Research based on the PSID Child Development Supplement.

The Child Development Supplement to the PSID (PSID-CDS) began in 1997 with a cohort of 2,394 households including 3,586 children. Since that auspicious start, three waves of the first cohort were collected - 1997, 2002-03, and 2007-08 - and a new cohort was interviewed in 2014. To date more than 400 journal articles, chapters, books, and dissertations that used the data have been collected in the PSID bibliography. This paper brings together founders and early adopters to summarize important contributions to the child development, time use, media, and health literatures. The purpose of this paper is not a detailed literature review but an overview of the literature and knowledge base to which PSID-CDS researchers have contributed. It points out unique methodological and measurement contributions, summarizes the motivation for research on parental investments in children, reviews findings regarding healthy child development, and examines the role of neighborhoods in children's lives.

Racial Disparities in Blood Pressure Trajectories of Preterm Children: The Role of Family and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status.

Racial disparities in cardiovascular disease mortality in the United States remain substantial. However, the childhood roots of these disparities are not well understood. In the current study, we examined racial differences in blood pressure trajectories across early childhood in a sample of African-American and European-American low-birth-weight preterm infants. Family and neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES), measured at baseline, were also examined as explanations for subsequent group disparities. Analyses focused on 407 African-American and 264 European-American children who participated in the Infant Health and Development Program, a US longitudinal study of preterm children born in 1985. Blood pressure was assessed on 6 occasions between the ages of 24 and 78 months, in 1987-1992. Across this age range, the average rate of change in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure was greater among African-American children than among European-American children. Neighborhood SES explained 29% and 24% of the racial difference in the average rate of change in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respectively, whereas family SES did not account for group differences. The findings show that racial differences in blood pressure among preterm children emerge in early childhood and that neighborhood SES accounts for a portion of racial disparities.

Sleep Duration and Telomere Length in Children.

OBJECTIVE: To test the association between sleep duration and telomere length in a pediatric population. STUDY DESIGN: We analyzed cross-sectional data for 1567 children from the age 9 study wave of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a population-based birth cohort of children born between 1998 and 2000 in large American cities (population >200 000). We measured telomere length using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and children's typical nightly sleep duration was reported by their primary caregivers. Using linear regression, we estimated the association between sleep duration and telomere length both in unadjusted models and adjusting for a number of covariates. RESULTS: We found that children with shorter sleep durations have shorter telomeres than children with longer sleep durations. Each hour less of nightly sleep duration is associated with having telomeres that are 0.015 log-kilobases per chromosome shorter (P < .05). We found no difference in this association by race, sex, or socioeconomic status. CONCLUSIONS: We provide preliminary evidence that children with shorter sleep durations have shorter telomeres. This finding is consistent with a broader literature indicating that suboptimal sleep duration is a risk for increased physiological stress and impaired health. Future research should address the limitations of our study design by using longitudinal study designs and telomere measurements, measuring sleep duration via polysomnography or actigraphy, and assessing the intermediate biological mechanisms of the link between sleep and telomere dynamics.

Social disadvantage, genetic sensitivity, and children's telomere length.

Disadvantaged social environments are associated with adverse health outcomes. This has been attributed, in part, to chronic stress. Telomere length (TL) has been used as a biomarker of chronic stress: TL is shorter in adults in a variety of contexts, including disadvantaged social standing and depression. We use data from 40, 9-y-old boys participating in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to extend this observation to African American children. We report that exposure to disadvantaged environments is associated with reduced TL by age 9 y. We document significant associations between low income, low maternal education, unstable family structure, and harsh parenting and TL. These effects were moderated by genetic variants in serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways. Consistent with the differential susceptibility hypothesis, subjects with the highest genetic sensitivity scores had the shortest TL when exposed to disadvantaged social environments and the longest TL when exposed to advantaged environments.

Coresidential Father Transitions and Biological Parents' Coparenting Quality in Early and Middle Childhood.

This study examined how the entrances and exits of biological and social fathers into and out of children's households were associated with biological parents' coparenting quality. Piecewise growth curve models tested for variation in these associations between child ages 1 and 3, 3 and 5, and 5 and 9. Data came from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 2,394). Results indicated that in all three age intervals, a biological father's entrance was associated with a contemporaneous increase in coparenting quality, whereas his exit was associated with a contemporaneous decrease. A biological father's exit between child ages 1 and 3, or 3 and 5, was associated with declining coparenting quality in subsequent intervals. A social father's entrance was consistently associated with a contemporaneous decrease in the biological parents' coparenting quality, whereas his exit was associated with a contemporaneous increase between ages 3 and 5, and 5 and 9.