Alveolar macrophages are epigenetically altered after inflammation, leading to long-term lung immunoparalysis.

Sepsis and trauma cause inflammation and elevated susceptibility to hospital-acquired pneumonia. As phagocytosis by macrophages plays a critical role in the control of bacteria, we investigated the phagocytic activity of macrophages after resolution of inflammation. After resolution of primary pneumonia, murine alveolar macrophages (AMs) exhibited poor phagocytic capacity for several weeks. These paralyzed AMs developed from resident AMs that underwent an epigenetic program of tolerogenic training. Such adaptation was not induced by direct encounter of the pathogen but by secondary immunosuppressive signals established locally upon resolution of primary infection. Signal-regulatory protein α (SIRPα) played a critical role in the establishment of the microenvironment that induced tolerogenic training. In humans with systemic inflammation, AMs and also circulating monocytes still displayed alterations consistent with reprogramming six months after resolution of inflammation. Antibody blockade of SIRPα restored phagocytosis in monocytes of critically ill patients in vitro, which suggests a potential strategy to prevent hospital-acquired pneumonia.

Author Correction: Alveolar macrophages are epigenetically altered after inflammation, leading to long-term lung immunoparalysis.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Local Modulation of Antigen-Presenting Cell Development after Resolution of Pneumonia Induces Long-Term Susceptibility to Secondary Infections.

Lung infections cause prolonged immune alterations and elevated susceptibility to secondary pneumonia. We found that, after resolution of primary viral or bacterial pneumonia, dendritic cells (DC), and macrophages exhibited poor antigen-presentation capacity and secretion of immunogenic cytokines. Development of these "paralyzed" DCs and macrophages depended on the immunosuppressive microenvironment established upon resolution of primary infection, which involved regulatory T (Treg) cells and the cytokine TGF-ß. Paralyzed DCs secreted TGF-ß and induced local Treg cell accumulation. They also expressed lower amounts of IRF4, a transcription factor associated with increased antigen-presentation capacity, and higher amounts of Blimp1, a transcription factor associated with tolerogenic functions, than DCs present during primary infection. Blimp1 expression in DC of humans suffering sepsis or trauma correlated with severity and complicated outcomes. Our findings describe mechanisms underlying sepsis- and trauma-induced immunosuppression, reveal prognostic markers of susceptibility to secondary infections and identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Evaluating the Sum of Eye and Motor Components of the Glasgow Coma Score As a Predictor of Extubation Failure in Patients With Acute Brain Injury.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the association between the pre-extubation sum of eye and motor components of the Glasgow Coma Score (GCS-EM) and odds of extubation failure in patients with acute brain injury being liberated from mechanical ventilation. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of a prospective, multicenter observational study ( ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT03400904). SETTING: Sixty-three hospital sites worldwide, with patient recruitment from January 2018 to November 2020. PATIENTS: One thousand one hundred fifty-two critically ill patients with acute brain injury, with a median age of 54 years, of whom 783 (68.0%) were male, 559 (48.5%) had traumatic brain injury, and 905 (78.6%) had a GCS-EM greater than 8 before extubation (scores range from 2 to 10). INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: GCS-EM was computed in intubated patients on the day of extubation. The main outcome was extubation failure, defined as unplanned reintubation within 5 days of extubation. Analyses used multilevel logistic regression with adjustment for patient characteristics and a random intercept for hospital site. In the primary analysis, GCS-EM was not associated with extubation failure (odds ratio, 1.07 per additional point; 95% CI, 0.87-1.31). Findings were consistent in sensitivity analyses that: 1) used different adjustment covariates, 2) included a verbal estimate to derive an overall GCS, 3) accounted for missing data, 4) considered a 2-day time interval to define extubation failure, 5) accounted for competing risks, and 6) used a propensity score-based model. There was no association between GCS-EM and extubation outcome in subgroups defined by brain injury diagnosis or age. CONCLUSIONS: In this large, contemporary, multicenter cohort of patients with acute brain injury, we found no association between the GCS-EM and odds of extubation failure. However, few patients had a pre-extubation GCS-EM less than or equal to 8, and the possibility of a true prognostic association in patients with low scores is not excluded.

Incidence and Outcomes of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Brain-Injured Patients Receiving Invasive Ventilation: A Secondary Analysis of the ENIO Study.

Background: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is an important pulmonary complication in brain-injured patients receiving invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV). We aimed to evaluate the incidence and association between ARDS and clinical outcomes in patients with different forms of acute brain injury requiring IMV in the intensive care unit (ICU). Methods: This was a preplanned secondary analysis of a prospective, multicenter, international cohort study (NCT03400904). We included brain-injured patients receiving IMV for ≥ 24 h. ARDS was the main exposure of interest and was identified during index ICU admission using the Berlin definition. We examined the incidence and adjusted association of ARDS with ICU mortality, ICU length of stay, duration of IMV, and extubation failure. Outcomes were evaluated using mixed-effect logistic regression and cause-specific Cox proportional hazards models. Results: 1492 patients from 67 hospitals and 16 countries were included in the analysis, of whom 137 individuals developed ARDS (9.2% of overall cohort). Across countries, the median ARDS incidence was 5.1% (interquartile range [IQR] 0-10; range 0-27.3). ARDS was associated with increased ICU mortality (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 2.66; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.29-5.48), longer ICU length of stay (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 0.59; 95% CI, 0.48-0.73), and longer duration of IMV (adjusted HR 0.54; 95% CI, 0.44-0.67). The association between ARDS and extubation failure approached statistical significance (adjusted HR 1.48; 95% CI 0.99-2.21). Higher ARDS severity was associated with incrementally longer ICU length of stay and longer cumulative duration of IMV. Findings remained robust in a sensitivity analysis evaluating the magnitude of unmeasured confounding. Conclusions: In this cohort of acutely brain-injured patients, the incidence of ARDS was similar to that reported in other mixed cohorts of critically ill patients. Development of ARDS was associated with worse outcomes.

Association of Noninvasive Respiratory Support with Extubation Outcomes in Brain-injured Patients Receiving Mechanical Ventilation: A Secondary Analysis of the ENIO Prospective Observational Study.

Rationale: Noninvasive respiratory support using a high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) or noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) can decrease the risk of reintubation in patients being liberated from mechanical ventilation, but effects in patients with acute brain injury (ABI) are unknown. Objectives: To evaluate the association between postextubation noninvasive respiratory support and reintubation in patients with ABI being liberated from mechanical ventilation. Methods: This was a secondary analysis of a prospective, observational study of mechanically ventilated patients with ABI (clinicaltrials.gov identifier NCT03400904). The primary endpoint was reintubation during ICU admission. We used mixed-effects logistic regression models with patient-level covariates and random intercepts for hospital and country to evaluate the association between prophylactic (i.e., planned) HFNC or NIPPV and reintubation. Measurements and Main Results: 1,115 patients were included from 62 hospitals and 19 countries, of whom 267 received HFNC or NIPPV following extubation (23.9%). Compared with conventional oxygen therapy, neither prophylactic HFNC nor NIPPV was associated with decreased odds of reintubation (respectively, odds ratios of 0.97 [95% confidence interval, 0.54-1.73] and 0.63 [0.30-1.32]). Findings remained consistent in sensitivity analyses accounting for alternate adjustment procedures, missing data, shorter time frames of the primary endpoint, and competing risks precluding reintubation. In a Bayesian analysis using skeptical and data-driven priors, the probabilities of reduced reintubation ranged from 17% to 34% for HFNC and from 46% to 74% for NIPPV. Conclusions: In a large cohort of brain-injured patients undergoing liberation from mechanical ventilation, prophylactic use of HFNC and NIPPV were not associated with reintubation. Prospective trials are needed to confirm treatment effects in this population. Primary study registered with www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03400904).

Individualized Thresholds of Hypoxemia and Hyperoxemia and their Effect on Outcome in Acute Brain Injured Patients: A Secondary Analysis of the ENIO Study.

BACKGROUND: In acute brain injury (ABI), the effects of hypoxemia as a potential cause of secondary brain damage and poor outcome are well documented, whereas the impact of hyperoxemia is unclear. The primary aim of this study was to assess the episodes of hypoxemia and hyperoxemia in patients with ABI during the intensive care unit (ICU) stay and to determine their association with in-hospital mortality. The secondary aim was to identify the optimal thresholds of arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) predicting in-hospital mortality. METHODS: We conducted a secondary analysis of a prospective multicenter observational cohort study. Adult patients with ABI (traumatic brain injury, subarachnoid aneurysmal hemorrhage, intracranial hemorrhage, ischemic stroke) with available data on PaO2 during the ICU stay were included. Hypoxemia was defined as PaO2 < 80 mm Hg, normoxemia was defined as PaO2 between 80 and 120 mm Hg, mild/moderate hyperoxemia was defined as PaO2 between 121 and 299 mm Hg, and severe hyperoxemia was defined as PaO2 levels ≥ 300 mm Hg. RESULTS: A total of 1,407 patients were included in this study. The mean age was 52 (±18) years, and 929 (66%) were male. Over the ICU stay, the fractions of patients in the study cohort who had at least one episode of hypoxemia, mild/moderate hyperoxemia, and severe hyperoxemia were 31.3%, 53.0%, and 1.7%, respectively. PaO2 values below 92 mm Hg and above 156 mm Hg were associated with an increased probability of in-hospital mortality. Differences were observed among subgroups of patients with ABI, with consistent effects only seen in patients without traumatic brain injury. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with ABI, hypoxemia and mild/moderate hyperoxemia were relatively frequent. Hypoxemia and hyperoxemia during ICU stay may influence in-hospital mortality. However, the small number of oxygen values collected represents a major limitation of the study.

Predictive Models of Long-Term Outcome in Patients with Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury are Biased Toward Mortality Prediction.

BACKGROUND: The prognostication of long-term functional outcomes remains challenging in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Our aim was to demonstrate that intensive care unit (ICU) variables are not efficient to predict 6-month functional outcome in survivors with moderate to severe TBI (msTBI) but are mostly associated with mortality, which leads to a mortality bias for models predicting a composite outcome of mortality and severe disability. METHODS: We analyzed the data from the multicenter randomized controlled Continuous Hyperosmolar Therapy in Traumatic Brain-Injured Patients trial and developed predictive models using machine learning methods and baseline characteristics and predictors collected during ICU stay. We compared our models' predictions of 6-month binary Glasgow Outcome Scale extended (GOS-E) score in all patients with msTBI (unfavorable GOS-E 1-4 vs. favorable GOS-E 5-8) with mortality (GOS-E 1 vs. GOS-E 2-8) and binary functional outcome in survivors with msTBI (severe disability GOS-E 2-4 vs. moderate to no disability GOS-E 5-8). We investigated the link between ICU variables and long-term functional outcomes in survivors with msTBI using predictive modeling and factor analysis of mixed data and validated our hypotheses on the International Mission for Prognosis and Analysis of Clinical Trials in TBI (IMPACT) model. RESULTS: Based on data from 370 patients with msTBI and classically used ICU variables, the prediction of the 6-month outcome in survivors was inefficient (mean area under the receiver operating characteristic 0.52). Using factor analysis of mixed data graph, we demonstrated that high-variance ICU variables were not associated with outcome in survivors with msTBI (p = 0.15 for dimension 1, p = 0.53 for dimension 2) but mostly with mortality (p < 0.001 for dimension 1), leading to a mortality bias for models predicting a composite outcome of mortality and severe disability. We finally identified this mortality bias in the IMPACT model. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated using machine learning-based predictive models that classically used ICU variables are strongly associated with mortality but not with 6-month outcome in survivors with msTBI, leading to a mortality bias when predicting a composite outcome of mortality and severe disability.

Restrictive vs Liberal Transfusion Strategy in Patients With Acute Brain Injury: The TRAIN Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Blood transfusions are commonly administered to patients with acute brain injury. The optimal hemoglobin transfusion threshold is uncertain in this patient population. Objective: To assess the impact on neurological outcome of 2 different hemoglobin thresholds to guide red blood cell transfusions in patients with acute brain injury. Design, Setting, and Participants: Multicenter, phase 3, parallel-group, investigator-initiated, pragmatic, open-label randomized clinical trial conducted in 72 intensive care units across 22 countries. Eligible patients had traumatic brain injury, aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, or intracerebral hemorrhage; hemoglobin values below 9 g/dL within the first 10 days after injury; and an expected intensive care unit stay of at least 72 hours. Enrollment occurred between September 1, 2017, and December 31, 2022. The last day of follow-up was June 30, 2023. Interventions: Eight hundred fifty patients were randomly assigned to undergo a liberal (transfusion triggered by hemoglobin <9 g/dL; n = 408) or a restrictive (transfusion triggered by hemoglobin <7 g/dL; n = 442) transfusion strategy over a 28-day period. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was occurrence of an unfavorable neurological outcome, defined as a Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended score between 1 and 5, at 180 days following randomization. There were 14 prespecified serious adverse events, including occurrence of cerebral ischemia after randomization. Results: Among 820 patients who completed the trial (mean age, 51 years; 376 [45.9%] women), 806 had available data on the primary outcome, 393 in the liberal strategy group and 413 in the restrictive strategy group. The liberal strategy group received a median of 2 (IQR, 1-3) units of blood, and the restrictive strategy group received a median of 0 (IQR, 0-1) units of blood, with an absolute mean difference of 1.0 unit (95% CI, 0.87-1.12 units). At 180 days after randomization, 246 patients (62.6%) in the liberal strategy group had an unfavorable neurological outcome compared with 300 patients (72.6%) in the restrictive strategy group (absolute difference, -10.0% [95% CI, -16.5% to -3.6%]; adjusted relative risk, 0.86 [95% CI, 0.79-0.94]; P = .002). The effect of the transfusion thresholds on neurological outcome at 180 days was consistent across prespecified subgroups. In the liberal strategy group, 35 (8.8%) of 397 patients had at least 1 cerebral ischemic event compared with 57 (13.5%) of 423 in the restrictive strategy group (relative risk, 0.65 [95% CI, 0.44-0.97]). Conclusions and Relevance: Patients with acute brain injury and anemia randomized to a liberal transfusion strategy were less likely to have an unfavorable neurological outcome than those randomized to a restrictive strategy. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02968654.

A multifaceted strategy to optimize pharmacokinetics of antimicrobial therapy in patients with hospital-acquired infections-a monocentre quality improvement project.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed the efficacy of a quality improvement programme to optimize the delivery of antimicrobial therapy in critically ill patients with hospital-acquired infections (HAI). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Before-after trial in a university hospital in France. Consecutive adults receiving systemic antimicrobial therapy for HAI were included. Patients received standard care during the pre-intervention period (June 2017 to November 2017). The quality improvement programme was implemented in December 2017. During the intervention period (January 2018 to June 2019), clinicians were trained to dose adjustment based on therapeutic drug monitoring and continuous infusion of ß-lactam antibiotics. The primary endpoint was the mortality rate at day 90. RESULTS: A total of 198 patients were included (58 pre-intervention, 140 intervention). The compliance with the therapeutic drug monitoring-dose adaptation increased from 20.3% to 59.3% after the intervention (P < 0.0001). The 90-day mortality rate was 27.6% in the pre-intervention period and 17.3% in the intervention group (adjusted relative risk 0.53, 95%CI 0.27-1.07, P = 0.08). Treatment failures were observed in 22 (37.9%) patients before and 36 (25.7%) patients after the intervention (P = 0.07). CONCLUSIONS: Recommendations for therapeutic drug monitoring-dose adaptation and continuous infusion of ß-lactam antibiotics were not associated with a reduction in the 90-day mortality rate in patients with HAI.

Ventilator-associated pneumonia in neurocritically ill patients: insights from the ENIO international prospective observational study.

BACKGROUND: Acute brain injured (ABI) patients are at high risk of developing ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). However, incidence, risk factors and effects on outcome of VAP are not completely elucidated in this population. The primary aim of this study was to determine the incidence of VAP in a cohort of ABI patients. The secondary objectives included the identification of risk factors for development of VAP, and the impact of VAP on clinical outcomes. Clinical outcomes were defined as intensive care unit length of stay (ICU-LOS), duration of invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV), and ICU mortality. METHODS: Pre-planned sub-analysis of the Extubation strategies in Neuro-Intensive care unit (ICU) patients and associations with Outcomes (ENIO) international multi-center prospective observational study. Patients with available data on VAP, who received at least 48 h of IMV and ICU-LOS ≥ 72 h were included. RESULTS: Out of 1512 patients included in the ENIO study, 1285 were eligible for this analysis. The prevalence of VAP was 39.5% (33.7 cases /1000 ventilator-days), with a high heterogeneity across countries and according to the type of brain injury. VAP was significantly more frequent in male patients, in those with smoke habits and when intraparenchymal probe (IP), external ventricular drain (EVD) or hypothermia (p < 0.001) were used. Independent risk factors for VAP occurrence were male gender, the use of IP, hypothermia, and the occurrence of tracheobronchitis during ICU stay. VAP was not an independent risk factor for ICU mortality (Hazard Ratio, HR = 0.71 95%CI 0.43-1.16, p = 0.168), but was independently associated with longer ICU stay (OR = 2.55 95%CI 2.01-3.23, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: VAP is common in ABI patients. Male gender, IP and EVD insertion, tracheobronchitis, and the use of therapeutic hypothermia were significantly associated with VAP occurrence. VAP did not affect mortality but increased ICU-LOS.

Mechanical ventilation in patients with acute brain injury: a systematic review with meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the potential effects of ventilatory strategies on the outcome of acute brain-injured patients undergoing invasive mechanical ventilation. DESIGN: Systematic review with an individual data meta-analysis. SETTING: Observational and interventional (before/after) studies published up to August 22nd, 2022, were considered for inclusion. We investigated the effects of low tidal volume Vt < 8 ml/Kg of IBW versus Vt > = 8 ml/Kg of IBW, positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) < or > = 5 cmH2O and protective ventilation (association of both) on relevant clinical outcomes. POPULATION: Patients with acute brain injury (trauma or haemorrhagic stroke) with invasive mechanical ventilation for ≥ 24 h. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was mortality at 28 days or in-hospital mortality. Secondary outcomes were the incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), the duration of mechanical ventilation and the partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2)/fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) ratio. RESULTS: The meta-analysis included eight studies with a total of 5639 patients. There was no difference in mortality between low and high tidal volume [Odds Ratio, OR 0.88 (95%Confidence Interval, CI 0.74 to 1.05), p = 0.16, I2 = 20%], low and moderate to high PEEP [OR 0.8 (95% CI 0.59 to 1.07), p = 0.13, I2 = 80%] or protective and non-protective ventilation [OR 1.03 (95% CI 0.93 to 1.15), p = 0.6, I2 = 11]. Low tidal volume [OR 0.74 (95% CI 0.45 to 1.21, p = 0.23, I2 = 88%], moderate PEEP [OR 0.98 (95% CI 0.76 to 1.26), p = 0.9, I2 = 21%] or protective ventilation [OR 1.22 (95% CI 0.94 to 1.58), p = 0.13, I2 = 22%] did not affect the incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Protective ventilation improved the PaO2/FiO2 ratio in the first five days of mechanical ventilation (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Low tidal volume, moderate to high PEEP, or protective ventilation were not associated with mortality and lower incidence of ARDS in patients with acute brain injury undergoing invasive mechanical ventilation. However, protective ventilation improved oxygenation and could be safely considered in this setting. The exact role of ventilatory management on the outcome of patients with a severe brain injury needs to be more accurately delineated.

Utilization of mechanical power and associations with clinical outcomes in brain injured patients: a secondary analysis of the extubation strategies in neuro-intensive care unit patients and associations with outcome (ENIO) trial.

BACKGROUND: There is insufficient evidence to guide ventilatory targets in acute brain injury (ABI). Recent studies have shown associations between mechanical power (MP) and mortality in critical care populations. We aimed to describe MP in ventilated patients with ABI, and evaluate associations between MP and clinical outcomes. METHODS: In this preplanned, secondary analysis of a prospective, multi-center, observational cohort study (ENIO, NCT03400904), we included adult patients with ABI (Glasgow Coma Scale ≤ 12 before intubation) who required mechanical ventilation (MV) ≥ 24 h. Using multivariable log binomial regressions, we separately assessed associations between MP on hospital day (HD)1, HD3, HD7 and clinical outcomes: hospital mortality, need for reintubation, tracheostomy placement, and development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). RESULTS: We included 1217 patients (mean age 51.2 years [SD 18.1], 66% male, mean body mass index [BMI] 26.3 [SD 5.18]) hospitalized at 62 intensive care units in 18 countries. Hospital mortality was 11% (n = 139), 44% (n = 536) were extubated by HD7 of which 20% (107/536) required reintubation, 28% (n = 340) underwent tracheostomy placement, and 9% (n = 114) developed ARDS. The median MP on HD1, HD3, and HD7 was 11.9 J/min [IQR 9.2-15.1], 13 J/min [IQR 10-17], and 14 J/min [IQR 11-20], respectively. MP was overall higher in patients with ARDS, especially those with higher ARDS severity. After controlling for same-day pressure of arterial oxygen/fraction of inspired oxygen (P/F ratio), BMI, and neurological severity, MP at HD1, HD3, and HD7 was independently associated with hospital mortality, reintubation and tracheostomy placement. The adjusted relative risk (aRR) was greater at higher MP, and strongest for: mortality on HD1 (compared to the HD1 median MP 11.9 J/min, aRR at 17 J/min was 1.22, 95% CI 1.14-1.30) and HD3 (1.38, 95% CI 1.23-1.53), reintubation on HD1 (1.64; 95% CI 1.57-1.72), and tracheostomy on HD7 (1.53; 95%CI 1.18-1.99). MP was associated with the development of moderate-severe ARDS on HD1 (2.07; 95% CI 1.56-2.78) and HD3 (1.76; 95% CI 1.41-2.22). CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to high MP during the first week of MV is associated with poor clinical outcomes in ABI, independent of P/F ratio and neurological severity. Potential benefits of optimizing ventilator settings to limit MP warrant further investigation.

Prevalence and risk factors of significant persistent pain symptoms after critical care illness: a prospective multicentric study.

BACKGROUND: Prevalence, risk factors and medical management of persistent pain symptoms after critical care illness have not been thoroughly investigated. METHODS: We performed a prospective multicentric study in patients with an intensive care unit (ICU) length of stay ≥ 48 h. The primary outcome was the prevalence of significant persistent pain, defined as a numeric rating scale (NRS) ≥ 3, 3 months after admission. Secondary outcomes were the prevalence of symptoms compatible with neuropathic pain (ID-pain score > 3) and the risk factors of persistent pain. RESULTS: Eight hundred fourteen patients were included over a 10-month period in 26 centers. Patients had a mean age of 57 (± 17) years with a SAPS 2 score of 32 (± 16) (mean ± SD). The median ICU length of stay was 6 [4-12] days (median [interquartile]). At 3 months, the median intensity of pain symptoms was 2 [1-5] in the entire population, and 388 (47.7%) patients had significant pain. In this group, 34 (8.7%) patients had symptoms compatible with neuropathic pain. Female (Odds Ratio 1.5 95% CI [1.1-2.1]), prior use of anti-depressive agents (OR 2.2 95% CI [1.3-4]), prone positioning (OR 3 95% CI [1.4-6.4]) and the presence of pain symptoms on ICU discharge (NRS ≥ 3) (OR 2.4 95% CI [1.7-3.4]) were risk factors of persistent pain. Compared with sepsis, patients admitted for trauma (non neuro) (OR 3.5 95% CI [2.1-6]) were particularly at risk of persistent pain. Only 35 (11.3%) patients had specialist pain management by 3 months. CONCLUSIONS: Persistent pain symptoms were frequent in critical illness survivors and specialized management remained infrequent. Innovative approaches must be developed in the ICU to minimize the consequences of pain. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT04817696. Registered March 26, 2021.

Monocyte Signature Associated with Herpes Simplex Virus Reactivation and Neurological Recovery after Brain Injury.

Rationale: Brain injury induces systemic immunosuppression, increasing the risk of viral reactivations and altering neurological recovery. Objectives: To determine if systemic immune alterations and lung replication of herpesviridae are associated and can help predict outcomes after brain injury. Methods: We collected peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with severe brain injury requiring invasive mechanical ventilation. We systematically searched for respiratory herpes simplex virus (HSV) replications in tracheal aspirates. We also performed chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing, RNA-sequencing, and in vitro functional assays of monocytes and CD4 T cells collected on Day 1 to characterize the immune response to severe acute brain injury. The primary outcome was the Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended at 6 months. Measurements and Main Results: In 344 patients with severe brain injury, lung HSV reactivations were observed in 39% of the 232 patients seropositive for HSV and independently associated with poor neurological recovery at 6 months (hazard ratio, 1.90; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-3.57). Weighted gene coexpression network analyses of the transcriptomic response of monocytes to brain injury defined a module of 721 genes, including PD-L1 and CD80, enriched for the binding DNA motif of the transcriptional factor Zeb2 and whose ontogenic analyses revealed decreased IFN-γ-mediated and antiviral response signaling pathways. This monocyte signature was preserved in a validation cohort and predicted the neurological outcome at 6 months with good accuracy (area under the curve, 0.786; 95% confidence interval, 0.593-0.978). Conclusions: A specific monocyte signature is associated with HSV reactivation and predicts poor recovery after brain injury. The alterations of the immune control of herpesviridae replication are understudied and represent a novel therapeutic target.

Goal-Directed Fluid Therapy and major postoperative complications in elective craniotomy. A retrospective analysis of a before-after multicentric study.

BACKGROUND: Goal-Directed Fluid Therapy (GDFT) is recommended to decrease major postoperative complications. However, data are lacking in intra-cranial neurosurgery. METHODS: We evaluated the efficacy of a GDFT protocol in a before/after multi-centre study in patients undergoing elective intra-cranial surgery for brain tumour. Data were collected during 6 months in each period (before/after). GDFT was performed in high-risk patients: ASA score III/IV and/or preoperative Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) < 15 and/or history of brain tumour surgery and/or tumour greater size ≥ 35 mm and/or mid-line shift ≥ 3 mm and/or significant haemorrhagic risk. Major postoperative complication was a composite endpoint: re-intubation after surgery, a new onset of GCS < 15 after surgery, focal motor deficit, agitation, seizures, intra-cranial haemorrhage, stroke, intra-cranial hypertension, hospital-acquired related pneumonia, surgical site infection, cardiac arrythmia, invasive mechanical ventilation ≥ 48 h and in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: From July 2018 to January 2021, 344 patients were included in 3 centers: 171 in the before and 173 in the after (GDFT) period. Thirty-six (21.1%) patients displayed a major postoperative complication in the Before period, and 50 (28.9%) in the After period (p = 0.1). In the propensity score analysis, we matched 48 patients in each period: 9 (18.8%) patients in the After period and 14 (29.2%) patients in the Before period displayed a major perioperative complication (p = 0.2). Sixty-two (35.8%) patients received GDFT in the After period, with great heterogeneity among centers (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In our before-after study, GDFT was not associated with a decrease in postoperative major complications in elective intra-cranial neurosurgery.

Liberation from Mechanical Ventilation and Tracheostomy Practice in Traumatic Brain Injury.

Liberating patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) from mechanical ventilation is often a challenging task. These patients frequently require prolonged ventilation and have persistent alterations in the level and content of consciousness. Questions about their ability to protect their airway are common. Pulmonary complications and copious respiratory secretions are also very prevalent. Thus, it is hardly surprising that rates of extubation failure are high. This is a major problem because extubation failure is associated with a host of poor outcome measures. When the safety of an extubation attempt is uncertain, direct tracheostomy is favored by some, but there is no evidence that this practice leads to better outcomes. Current knowledge is insufficient to reliably predict extubation outcomes in TBI, and practices vary substantially across trauma centers. Yet observational studies provide relevant information that must be weighted when considering the decision to attempt extubation in patients with head injury. This review discusses available evidence on liberation from mechanical ventilation in TBI, proposes priorities for future research, and offers practical advice to guide decisions at the bedside.

Does Differential Item Functioning Jeopardize the Comparability of Health-Related Quality of Life Assessment Between Patients and Proxies in Patients with Moderate-to-Severe Traumatic Brain Injury?

BACKGROUND: Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) is clearly recognized as a patient-important outcome in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Patient-reported outcomes are therefore often used and supposed to be directly reported by the patients without interpretation of their responses by a physician or anyone else. However, patients with TBI are often unable to self-report because of physical and/or cognitive impairments. Thus, proxy-reported measures, e.g., family members, are often used on the patient's behalf. Yet, many studies have reported that proxy and patient ratings differ and are noncomparable. However, most studies usually do not account for other potential confounding factors that may be associated with HRQoL. In addition, patients and proxies can interpret some items of the patient-reported outcomes differently. As a result, item responses may not only reflect patients' HRQoL but also the respondent's (patient or proxy) own perception of the items. This phenomenon, called differential item functioning (DIF), can lead to substantial differences between patient-reported and proxy-reported measures and compromise their comparability, leading to highly biased HRQoL estimates. Using data from the prospective multicenter continuous hyperosmolar therapy in traumatic brain-injured patients study (240 patients with HRQoL measured with the Short Form-36 (SF-36)), we assessed the comparability of patients' and proxies' reports by evaluating the extent to which items perception differs (i.e., DIF) between patients and proxies after controlling for potential confounders. METHODS: Items at risk of DIF adjusting for confounders were examined on the items of the role physical and role emotional domains of the SF-36. RESULTS: Differential item functioning was evidenced in three out of the four items of the role physical domain measuring role limitations due to physical health problems and in one out of the three items of the role emotional domain measuring role limitations due to personal or emotional problems. Overall, despite an expected similar level of role limitations between patients who were able to respond and those for whom proxies responded, proxies tend to give more pessimistic responses than patients in the case of major role limitations and more optimistic responses than patients in the case of minor limitations. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with moderate-to-severe TBI and proxies seem to have different perceptions of the items measuring role limitations due to physical or emotional problems, questioning the comparability of patient and proxy data. Therefore, aggregating proxy and patient responses may bias HRQoL estimates and alter medical decision-making based on these patient-important outcomes.

Effect of Remifentanil vs Neuromuscular Blockers During Rapid Sequence Intubation on Successful Intubation Without Major Complications Among Patients at Risk of Aspiration: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: It is uncertain whether a rapid-onset opioid is noninferior to a rapid-onset neuromuscular blocker during rapid sequence intubation when used in conjunction with a hypnotic agent. Objective: To determine whether remifentanil is noninferior to rapid-onset neuromuscular blockers for rapid sequence intubation. Design, Setting, and Participants: Multicenter, randomized, open-label, noninferiority trial among 1150 adults at risk of aspiration (fasting for <6 hours, bowel occlusion, recent trauma, or severe gastroesophageal reflux) who underwent tracheal intubation in the operating room at 15 hospitals in France from October 2019 to April 2021. Follow-up was completed on May 15, 2021. Interventions: Patients were randomized to receive neuromuscular blockers (1 mg/kg of succinylcholine or rocuronium; n = 575) or remifentanil (3 to 4 µg/kg; n = 575) immediately after injection of a hypnotic. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was assessed in all randomized patients (as-randomized population) and in all eligible patients who received assigned treatment (per-protocol population). The primary outcome was successful tracheal intubation on the first attempt without major complications, defined as lung aspiration of digestive content, oxygen desaturation, major hemodynamic instability, sustained arrhythmia, cardiac arrest, and severe anaphylactic reaction. The prespecified noninferiority margin was 7.0%. Results: Among 1150 randomized patients (mean age, 50.7 [SD, 17.4] years; 573 [50%] women), 1130 (98.3%) completed the trial. In the as-randomized population, tracheal intubation on the first attempt without major complications occurred in 374 of 575 patients (66.1%) in the remifentanil group and 408 of 575 (71.6%) in the neuromuscular blocker group (between-group difference adjusted for randomization strata and center, -6.1%; 95% CI, -11.6% to -0.5%; P = .37 for noninferiority), demonstrating inferiority. In the per-protocol population, 374 of 565 patients (66.2%) in the remifentanil group and 403 of 565 (71.3%) in the neuromuscular blocker group had successful intubation without major complications (adjusted difference, -5.7%; 2-sided 95% CI, -11.3% to -0.1%; P = .32 for noninferiority). An adverse event of hemodynamic instability was recorded in 19 of 575 patients (3.3%) with remifentanil and 3 of 575 (0.5%) with neuromuscular blockers (adjusted difference, 2.8%; 95% CI, 1.2%-4.4%). Conclusions and Relevance: Among adults at risk of aspiration during rapid sequence intubation in the operating room, remifentanil, compared with neuromuscular blockers, did not meet the criterion for noninferiority with regard to successful intubation on first attempt without major complications. Although remifentanil was statistically inferior to neuromuscular blockers, the wide confidence interval around the effect estimate remains compatible with noninferiority and limits conclusions about the clinical relevance of the difference. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03960801.

Association between in-ICU red blood cells transfusion and 1-year mortality in ICU survivors.

BACKGROUND: Impact of in-ICU transfusion on long-term outcomes remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to assess in critical-care survivors the association between in-ICU red blood cells transfusion and 1-year mortality. METHODS: FROG-ICU, a multicenter European study enrolling all-comers critical care patients was analyzed (n = 1551). Association between red blood cells transfusion administered in intensive care unit and 1-year mortality in critical care survivors was analyzed using an augmented inverse probability of treatment weighting-augmented inverse probability of censoring weighting method to control confounders. RESULTS: Among the 1551 ICU-survivors, 42% received at least one unit of red blood cells while in intensive care unit. Patients in the transfusion group had greater severity scores than those in the no-transfusion group. According to unweighted analysis, 1-year post-critical care mortality was greater in the transfusion group compared to the no-transfusion group (hazard ratio (HR) 1.78, 95% CI 1.45-2.16). Weighted analyses including 40 confounders, showed that transfusion remained associated with a higher risk of long-term mortality (HR 1.21, 95% CI 1.06-1.46). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest a high incidence of in-ICU RBC transfusion and that in-ICU transfusion is associated with a higher 1-year mortality among in-ICU survivors. Trial registration ( NCT01367093 ; Registered 6 June 2011).