cIAP1/2 Antagonism Induces Antigen-Specific T Cell-Dependent Immunity.

Checkpoint blockade immunotherapy has failed in pancreatic cancer and other poorly responsive tumor types in part due to inadequate T cell priming. Naive T cells can receive costimulation not only via CD28 but also through TNF superfamily receptors that signal via NF-κB. Antagonists of the ubiquitin ligases cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein (cIAP)1/2, also called second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (SMAC) mimetics, induce degradation of cIAP1/2 proteins, allowing for the accumulation of NIK and constitutive, ligand-independent activation of alternate NF-κB signaling that mimics costimulation in T cells. In tumor cells, cIAP1/2 antagonists can increase TNF production and TNF-mediated apoptosis; however, pancreatic cancer cells are resistant to cytokine-mediated apoptosis, even in the presence of cIAP1/2 antagonism. Dendritic cell activation is enhanced by cIAP1/2 antagonism in vitro, and intratumoral dendritic cells show higher expression of MHC class II in tumors from cIAP1/2 antagonism-treated mice. In this study, we use in vivo mouse models of syngeneic pancreatic cancer that generate endogenous T cell responses ranging from moderate to poor. Across multiple models, cIAP1/2 antagonism has pleiotropic beneficial effects on antitumor immunity, including direct effects on tumor-specific T cells leading to overall increased activation, increased control of tumor growth in vivo, synergy with multiple immunotherapy modalities, and immunologic memory. In contrast to checkpoint blockade, cIAP1/2 antagonism does not increase intratumoral T cell frequencies. Furthermore, we confirm our previous findings that even poorly immunogenic tumors with a paucity of T cells can experience T cell-dependent antitumor immunity, and we provide transcriptional clues into how these rare T cells coordinate downstream immune responses.

Transnuclear mice reveal Peyer's patch iNKT cells that regulate B-cell class switching to IgG1.

Tissue-resident iNKT cells maintain tissue homeostasis and peripheral surveillance against pathogens; however, studying these cells is challenging due to their low abundance and poor recovery from tissues. We here show that iNKT transnuclear mice, generated by somatic cell nuclear transfer, have increased tissue resident iNKT cells. We examined expression of PLZF, T-bet, and RORγt, as well as cytokine/chemokine profiles, and found that both monoclonal and polyclonal iNKT cells differentiated into functional subsets that faithfully replicated those seen in wild-type mice. We detected iNKT cells from tissues in which they are rare, including adipose, lung, skin-draining lymph nodes, and a previously undescribed population in Peyer's patches (PP). PP-NKT cells produce the majority of the IL-4 in Peyer's patches and provide indirect help for B-cell class switching to IgG1 in both transnuclear and wild-type mice. Oral vaccination with α-galactosylceramide shows enhanced fecal IgG1 titers in iNKT cell-sufficient mice. Transcriptional profiling reveals a unique signature of PP-NKT cells, characterized by tissue residency. We thus define PP-NKT as potentially important for surveillance for mucosal pathogens.

Monoclonal Invariant NKT (iNKT) Cell Mice Reveal a Role for Both Tissue of Origin and the TCR in Development of iNKT Functional Subsets.

Invariant NKT (iNKT) cell functional subsets are defined by key transcription factors and output of cytokines, such as IL-4, IFN-γ, IL-17, and IL-10. To examine how TCR specificity determines iNKT function, we used somatic cell nuclear transfer to generate three lines of mice cloned from iNKT nuclei. Each line uses the invariant Vα14Jα18 TCRα paired with unique Vß7 or Vß8.2 subunits. We examined tissue homing, expression of PLZF, T-bet, and RORγt, and cytokine profiles and found that, although monoclonal iNKT cells differentiated into all functional subsets, the NKT17 lineage was reduced or expanded depending on the TCR expressed. We examined iNKT thymic development in limited-dilution bone marrow chimeras and show that higher TCR avidity correlates with higher PLZF and reduced T-bet expression. iNKT functional subsets showed distinct tissue distribution patterns. Although each individual monoclonal TCR showed an inherent subset distribution preference that was evident across all tissues examined, the iNKT cytokine profile differed more by tissue of origin than by TCR specificity.

Sculpting the tumour microenvironment by combining radiotherapy and ATR inhibition for curative-intent adjuvant immunotherapy.

The combination of radiotherapy/chemoradiotherapy and immune checkpoint blockade can result in poor outcomes in patients with locally advanced head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Here, we show that combining ATR inhibition (ATRi) with radiotherapy (RT) increases the frequency of activated NKG2A+PD-1+ T cells in animal models of HNSCC. Compared with the ATRi/RT treatment regimen alone, the addition of simultaneous NKG2A and PD-L1 blockade to ATRi/RT, in the adjuvant, post-radiotherapy setting induces a robust antitumour response driven by higher infiltration and activation of cytotoxic T cells in the tumour microenvironment. The efficacy of this combination relies on CD40/CD40L costimulation and infiltration of activated, proliferating memory CD8+ and CD4+ T cells with persistent or new T cell receptor (TCR) signalling, respectively. We also observe increased richness in the TCR repertoire and emergence of numerous and large TCR clonotypes that cluster based on antigen specificity in response to NKG2A/PD-L1/ATRi/RT. Collectively, our data point towards potential combination approaches for the treatment of HNSCC.

NKG2A and HLA-E define an alternative immune checkpoint axis in bladder cancer.

Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)-blockade immunotherapies have limited efficacy in the treatment of bladder cancer. Here, we show that NKG2A associates with improved survival and responsiveness to PD-L1 blockade immunotherapy in bladder tumors that have high abundance of CD8+ T cells. In bladder tumors, NKG2A is acquired on CD8+ T cells later than PD-1 as well as other well-established immune checkpoints. NKG2A+ PD-1+ CD8+ T cells diverge from classically defined exhausted T cells through their ability to react to human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I-deficient tumors using T cell receptor (TCR)-independent innate-like mechanisms. HLA-ABC expression by bladder tumors is progressively diminished as disease progresses, framing the importance of targeting TCR-independent anti-tumor functions. Notably, NKG2A+ CD8+ T cells are inhibited when HLA-E is expressed by tumors and partly restored upon NKG2A blockade in an HLA-E-dependent manner. Overall, our study provides a framework for subsequent clinical trials combining NKG2A blockade with other T cell-targeted immunotherapies, where tumors express higher levels of HLA-E.

Inhibition of CDK4/6 Promotes CD8 T-cell Memory Formation.

CDK4/6 inhibitors are approved to treat breast cancer and are in trials for other malignancies. We examined CDK4/6 inhibition in mouse and human CD8+ T cells during early stages of activation. Mice receiving tumor-specific CD8+ T cells treated with CDK4/6 inhibitors displayed increased T-cell persistence and immunologic memory. CDK4/6 inhibition upregulated MXD4, a negative regulator of MYC, in both mouse and human CD8+ T cells. Silencing of Mxd4 or Myc in mouse CD8+ T cells demonstrated the importance of this axis for memory formation. We used single-cell transcriptional profiling and T-cell receptor clonotype tracking to evaluate recently activated human CD8+ T cells in patients with breast cancer before and during treatment with either palbociclib or abemaciclib. CDK4/6 inhibitor therapy in humans increases the frequency of CD8+ memory precursors and downregulates their expression of MYC target genes, suggesting that CDK4/6 inhibitors in patients with cancer may augment long-term protective immunity. SIGNIFICANCE: CDK4/6 inhibition skews newly activated CD8+ T cells toward a memory phenotype in mice and humans with breast cancer. CDK4/6 inhibitors may have broad utility outside breast cancer, particularly in the neoadjuvant setting to augment CD8+ T-cell priming to tumor antigens prior to dosing with checkpoint blockade.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 2355.

Intratumoral IL12 mRNA Therapy Promotes TH1 Transformation of the Tumor Microenvironment.

PURPOSE: While immune checkpoint inhibitors such as anti-PD-L1 are rapidly becoming the standard of care in the treatment of many cancers, only a subset of treated patients have long-term responses. IL12 promotes antitumor immunity in mouse models; however, systemic recombinant IL12 had significant toxicity and limited efficacy in early clinical trials. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We therefore designed a novel intratumoral IL12 mRNA therapy to promote local IL12 tumor production while mitigating systemic effects. RESULTS: A single intratumoral dose of mouse (m)IL12 mRNA induced IFNγ and CD8+ T-cell-dependent tumor regression in multiple syngeneic mouse models, and animals with a complete response demonstrated immunity to rechallenge. Antitumor activity of mIL12 mRNA did not require NK and NKT cells. mIL12 mRNA antitumor activity correlated with TH1 tumor microenvironment (TME) transformation. In a PD-L1 blockade monotherapy-resistant model, antitumor immunity induced by mIL12 mRNA was enhanced by anti-PD-L1. mIL12 mRNA also drove regression of uninjected distal lesions, and anti-PD-L1 potentiated this response. Importantly, intratumoral delivery of mRNA encoding membrane-tethered mIL12 also drove rejection of uninjected lesions with very limited circulating IL12p70, supporting the hypothesis that local IL12 could induce a systemic antitumor immune response against distal lesions. Furthermore, in ex vivo patient tumor slice cultures, human IL12 mRNA (MEDI1191) induced dose-dependent IL12 production, downstream IFNγ expression and TH1 gene expression. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate the potential for intratumorally delivered IL12 mRNA to promote TH1 TME transformation and robust antitumor immunity.See related commentary by Cirella et al., p. 6080.

IAP Antagonists Enhance Cytokine Production from Mouse and Human iNKT Cells.

Inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP) antagonists are in clinical trials for a variety of cancers, and mouse models show synergism between IAP antagonists and anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. Although IAP antagonists affect the intrinsic signaling of tumor cells, their most pronounced effects are on immune cells and the generation of antitumor immunity. Here, we examined the effects of IAP antagonism on T-cell development using mouse fetal thymic organ culture and observed a selective loss of iNKT cells, an effector cell type of potential importance for cancer immunotherapy. Thymic iNKT-cell development probably failed due to increased strength of TCR signal leading to negative selection, given that mature iNKT cells treated with IAP antagonists were not depleted, but had enhanced cytokine production in both mouse and human ex vivo cultures. Consistent with this, mature mouse primary iNKT cells and iNKT hybridomas increased production of effector cytokines in the presence of IAP antagonists. In vivo administration of IAP antagonists and α-GalCer resulted in increased IFNγ and IL-2 production from iNKT cells and decreased tumor burden in a mouse model of melanoma lung metastasis. Human iNKT cells also proliferated and increased IFNγ production dramatically in the presence of IAP antagonists, demonstrating the utility of these compounds in adoptive therapy of iNKT cells. Cancer Immunol Res; 6(1); 25-35. ©2017 AACR.

Altered Binding of Tumor Antigenic Peptides to MHC Class I Affects CD8+ T Cell-Effector Responses.

T-cell priming occurs when a naïve T cell recognizes cognate peptide-MHC complexes on an activated antigen-presenting cell. The circumstances of this initial priming have ramifications on the fate of the newly primed T cell. Newly primed CD8+ T cells can embark onto different trajectories, with some becoming short-lived effector cells and others adopting a tissue resident or memory cell fate. To determine whether T-cell priming influences the quality of the effector T-cell response to tumors, we used transnuclear CD8+ T cells that recognize the melanoma antigen TRP1 using TRP1high or TRP1low TCRs that differ in both affinity and fine specificity. From a series of altered peptide ligands, we identified a point mutation (K8) in a nonanchor residue that, when analyzed crystallographically and biophysically, destabilized the peptide interaction with the MHC binding groove. In vitro, the K8 peptide induced robust proliferation of both TRP1high and TRP1low CD8+ T cells but did not induce expression of PD-1. Cytokine production from K8-stimulated TRP1 cells was minimal, whereas cytotoxicity was increased. Upon transfer into B16 tumor-bearing mice, the reference peptide (TRP1-M9)- and K8-stimulated TRP1 cells were equally effective at controlling tumor growth but accomplished this through different mechanisms. TRP1-M9-stimulated cells produced more IFNγ, whereas K8-stimulated cells accumulated to higher numbers and were more cytotoxic. We, therefore, conclude that TCR recognition of weakly binding peptides during priming can skew the effector function of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells.

CXCR3+ monocytes/macrophages are required for establishment of pulmonary metastases.

We present a new foundational role for CXCR3+ monocytes/macrophages in the process of tumor engraftment in the lung. CXCR3 is associated with monocytic and lymphocytic infiltration of inflamed or tumor-bearing lung. Although the requirement for tumor-expressed CXCR3 in metastatic engraftment has been demonstrated, the role of monocyte-expressed CXCR3 had not been appreciated. In a murine model of metastatic-like melanoma, engraftment was coordinate with CXCR3+ monocyte/macrophage accumulation in the lungs and was sensitive to pharmacologic inhibition of CXCR3 signaling. Tumor engraftment to lung was impaired in CXCR3-/- mice, and transient reconstitution with circulating CXCR3-replete monocytes was sufficient to restore engraftment. These data illustrate the paradoxical pro-tumor role for CXCR3 in lung immunobiology wherein the CXCR3 axis drives both the anti-tumor effector cell chemoattraction and pro-tumor infiltration of the lungs and suggests a potential therapeutic target for lung-tropic metastasizing cancers.

Melanoma Induces, and Adenosine Suppresses, CXCR3-Cognate Chemokine Production and T-cell Infiltration of Lungs Bearing Metastatic-like Disease.

Despite immunogenicity, melanoma-specific vaccines have demonstrated minimal clinical efficacy in patients with established disease but enhanced survival when administered in the adjuvant setting. Therefore, we hypothesized that organs bearing metastatic-like melanoma may differentially produce T-cell chemotactic proteins over the course of tumor development. Using an established model of metastatic-like melanoma in lungs, we assessed the production of specific cytokines and chemokines over a time course of tumor growth, and we correlated chemokine production with chemokine receptor-specific T-cell infiltration. We observed that the interferon (IFN)-inducible CXCR3-cognate chemokines (CXCL9 and CXCL10) were significantly increased in lungs bearing minimal metastatic lesions, but chemokine production was at or below basal levels in lungs with substantial disease. Chemokine production was correlated with infiltration of the organ compartment by adoptively transferred CD8(+) tumor antigen-specific T cells in a CXCR3- and host IFNγ-dependent manner. Adenosine signaling in the tumor microenvironment (TME) suppressed chemokine production and T-cell infiltration in the advanced metastatic lesions, and this suppression could be partially reversed by administration of the adenosine receptor antagonist aminophylline. Collectively, our data demonstrate that CXCR3-cognate ligand expression is required for efficient T-cell access of tumor-infiltrated lungs, and these ligands are expressed in a temporally restricted pattern that is governed, in part, by adenosine. Therefore, pharmacologic modulation of adenosine activity in the TME could impart therapeutic efficacy to immunogenic but clinically ineffective vaccine platforms.

Peptide vaccination in Montanide adjuvant induces and GM-CSF increases CXCR3 and cutaneous lymphocyte antigen expression by tumor antigen-specific CD8 T cells.

T cell infiltration of melanoma is associated with enhanced clinical efficacy and is a desirable endpoint of immunotherapeutic vaccination. Infiltration is regulated, in part, by chemokine receptors and selectin ligands on the surface of tumor-specific lymphocytes. Therefore, we investigated the expression of two homing molecules--CXCR3 and CLA - on vaccine-induced CD8 T cells, in the context of a clinical trial of a melanoma-specific peptide vaccine. Both CXCR3 and CLA have been associated with T cell infiltration of melanoma. We demonstrate that a single subcutaneous/intradermal administration of peptide vaccine in Montanide adjuvant induces tumor-specific CD8 T cells that are predominantly positive for CXCR3, with a subpopulation of CXCR3(+)CLA(+) cells. Addition of GM-CSF significantly enhances CXCR3 expression and increases the proportion of CLA-expressing cells. Concurrent with CXCR3 and CLA expression, vaccine-induced CD8 cells express high levels of Tbet, IFN-γ, and IL-12Rß1. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that peptide vaccination in adjuvant induces CD8 T cells with a phenotype that may support infiltration of melanoma.

Interferons induce CXCR3-cognate chemokine production by human metastatic melanoma.

Immune-mediated cancer regression requires tumor infiltration by antigen-specific effector T cells, but lymphocytes are commonly sparse in melanoma metastases. Activated T cells express CXCR3, whose cognate chemokines are CXCL9/MIG, CXCL10/IP-10, and CXCL11/I-TAC. Little is known about expression of these chemokines in lymph node (LN) metastases of melanoma. We evaluated whether metastatic melanoma induces these CXCR3-cognate chemokines in human LN-derived tissues. In addition, as these chemokines can be induced by interferon (IFN), we evaluated whether type I or II IFNs (IFN-α or IFN-γ, respectively) can modulate chemokine expression in an in vitro model of the human tumor microenvironment. Production of CXCL9-11 by melanoma-infiltrated nodes (MIN) was no different than tumor-free nodes; both produced less chemokine than activated LN (sentinel immunized nodes, SIN). These data suggest that melanoma infiltration into LN neither induces nor reduces CXCL9-11. Stimulation with IFN-α or IFN-γ increased production of CXCL10-11 from MIN, but not tumor-free node or SIN. IFN-γ also increased production of CXCL9 in MIN. In IFN-treated SIN, CD14+ cells were the primary source of CXCL9-11, whereas melanoma cells were the source of chemokine in MIN. Melanoma cells in MIN express IFN receptors. Consistent with these observations, multiple human melanoma lines expressed IFN receptors and produced CXCL9-11 in response to IFN treatment. Thus, melanoma infiltration of LN is insufficient to induce the production of CXCL9-11, but melanoma may be a significant source of IFN-induced chemokines. Collectively, these data suggest that IFN-α or IFN-γ may act in the tumor microenvironment to increase the chemotactic gradient for CXCR3+ T cells.