Hapten reactive inducer T cells. II. Evidence that a secreted form of the T cell receptor induces antibody production.

The biologic activity of molecules synthesized and secreted by hapten-specific inducer T cells was examined. After activation, a single inducer clone secretes both antigen-specific inducer peptides as well as nonspecific factors. The nonspecific factors augment the in vitro response of B cells to sheep erythrocytes (SRBC) and Type 2 T-independent antigens. The antigen-specific molecules (ABM) induce plaque-forming cell (PFC) responses in cultures containing ABM, B cells, and antigen that links the epitope recognized by ABM with the B cell epitope. Induction of B cells by ABM is limited to B cells expressing the same I-A allele as the source of the ABM and this reflects binding by ABM to I-A products on B lymphocytes. The data reported here strongly support the view that inducer cells can activate at least some B cells by secretion of a modified form of the T cell surface receptor.

Hapten-reactive inducer T cells. I. Definition of two classes of hapten-specific inducer cells.

Hapten-reactive inducer T cell clones can be divided into two groups based on their activation specificity. The first and largest group is conjugate specific. These clones are activated only by hapten coupled to the same carrier protein used for in vitro selection. The second group, which is quite rare, is hapten specific. Clones of this type are activated by hapten coupled to all foreign and autologus proteins tested. Both types of clones corecognize soluble antigen in association with products of the I-A locus. The hapten-specific cells were used to analyze the molecular basis of I-A vs. I-E gene control. The physiologic significance of hapten- and carrier-specific inducer T cells in the response to foreign antigens and autoantigens is discussed.

HLA-derived peptides which inhibit T cell function bind to members of the heat-shock protein 70 family.

Synthetic peptides corresponding to sequences of HLA class I molecules have inhibitory effects on T cell function. The peptides investigated in this study have sequences corresponding to the relatively conserved region of the alpha 1 helix of HLA class I molecules that overlaps the "public epitope" Bw4/Bw6. These HLA-derived peptides exhibit inhibitory effects on T lymphocytes and have beneficial effects on the survival of allogenic organ transplants in mice and rats. Peptides corresponding to the Bw4a epitope appear most potent as they inhibit the differentiation of T cell precursors into mature cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and target cell lysis by established CTL lines and clones. To elucidate the mechanism through which these peptides mediate their inhibitory effect on T lymphocytes, peptide binding proteins were isolated from T cell lysates. We show that the inhibitory Bw4a peptide binds two members of the heat-shock protein (HSP) 70 family, constitutively expressed HSC70 and heat-inducible HSP70. Peptide binding to HSC/HSP70 is sequence specific and follows the rules defined by the HSC70 binding motif. Most intriguing, however, is the strict correlation of peptide binding to HSC/HSP70 and the functional effects such that only inhibitory peptides bind to HSC70 and HSP70 whereas noninhibitory peptides do not bind. This correlation suggests that small molecular weight HLA-derived peptides may modulate T cell responses by directly interacting with HSPs. In contrast to numerous reports of HSP70 expression at the surface of antigen-presenting cells and some tumor cells, we find no evidence that HSC/HSP70 are expressed at the surface of the affected T cells. Therefore, we believe that the peptides' immunodulatory effects are not mediated through a signaling event initiated by interaction of peptide with surface HSP, but favor a model similar to the action of other immunomodulatory compounds, FK506 and cyclosporin A, with a role for HSC/HSP70 similar to that for immunophilins, FKBPs and CyP40.

Rescue of Daudi cell HLA expression by transfection of the mouse beta 2-microglobulin gene.

The Daudi cell line is a B-lymphoblastoid line derived from a Burkitt lymphoma. Daudi cells lack cell surface expression of class I HLA molecules despite the presence of intracellular class I heavy chains. They have a defect in the gene encoding beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2m), resulting in lack of translatable mRNA for this protein. It has been thought that this deficiency is responsible for the lack of cell surface class I expression. However, data have recently been presented demonstrating that at least one mouse class I heavy chain can be expressed on the cell surface in the absence of beta 2m. These results raised the questions of whether the lack of beta 2m is the only defect in Daudi and whether transfer of this single gene could restore surface class I expression. We found that transfection of the mouse beta 2m gene into Daudi indeed rescued cell surface expression of class I HLA molecules, and that these molecules could be recognized both by monomorphic and allospecific mAbs. CTL clones specific for HLA-B17 or a determinant shared by HLA-B17 and HLA-A2 killed the Daudi cells transfected with the beta 2m gene, but not untransfected Daudi or Daudi transfected with vector alone. Mouse beta 2m on the transfected Daudi cells could exchange with human beta 2m when the cells were incubated in human serum. This exchange did not alter the ability of the cells to be killed by the specific CTLs. These results demonstrate that the lack of beta 2m is the sole reason for lack of surface class I molecules in Daudi cells, and that beta 2m is required for cell surface expression of the specific class I heavy chains of Daudi.

Anchoring pockets in human histocompatibility complex leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I molecules: analysis of the conserved B ("45") pocket of HLA-B27.

Dissection of the peptide binding grooves of seven subtypes of human histocompatibility leukocyte antigen (HLA)-B27 into the six specificity pockets defined by the 2.6-A structure of HLA-A*0201 revealed just one pocket, the B ("45") pocket, that is conserved among all the HLA-B27 subtypes. Functional studies of mutant HLA-B*2705 molecules with point substitutions in residues of the B pocket show that this structure, and the glutamine residue at position 45 in particular, plays a critical role in cell surface expression, peptide binding, and in the presentation of both exogenous and endogenous peptides by HLA-B*2705. We predict that the B pocket of HLA-B*2705 interacts with an amino acid side chain that anchors peptides in the binding groove, and that this peptide motif is present in most endogenously processed peptides that bind to all seven subtypes of HLA-B27.

In vitro mutagenesis at a single residue introduces B and T cell epitopes into a class I HLA molecule.

We have studied the interaction of HLA class I antigens with alloreactive cytotoxic T lymphocytes and monoclonal antibodies using site-directed mutagenesis and expression of an HLA-Aw68.1 gene. Two mutants containing distinct substitutions at polymorphic residues near the NH2-terminal end of the alpha 2 domain were made. One mutant with substitutions at positions 95 and 97 corresponding to residues found in HLA-A2.1 showed no alterations in binding of HLA-Aw68- or HLA-A2-specific monoclonal antibodies, but was reactive with some HLA-A2-specific CTL clones. A second mutant, in which glycine at position 107 was replaced with tryptophan found at that position in HLA-A2.1, was recognized by HLA-A2-specific CTL clones and HLA-A2, Aw69-specific monoclonal antibodies. Thus, substitution of a single amino acid residue at position 107 of the HLA-Aw68.1 molecule generates an allospecific determinant shared with HLA-A2.1 and recognized by both B and T lymphocytes.

Determinants recognized by human cytotoxic T cells on a natural hybrid class I HLA molecule.

The major histocompatibility complex class I HLA molecules are the primary determinants recognized by allogeneic cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), and serve as restricting elements for CTL recognition of viral, chemical, or minor histocompatibility antigens. HLA-Aw69 is a naturally occurring hybrid class I molecule that we have used to investigate the regions of class I antigens involved in human CTL recognition. HLA-Aw69 appears to have resulted from an exon shuffle between two closely related class I genes: the alpha 1 domain of HLA-Aw69 is identical to that of HLA-Aw68, while the alpha 2 and alpha 3 domains are identical to HLA-A2. The determinants recognized by human allogeneic CTL clones specific for HLA-A2, -Aw68, and/or -Aw69 fall into three patterns: (a) CTL determinants are located on both the alpha 1 and alpha 2 domains; (b) interaction of the alpha 1 and alpha 2 domains results in new combinatorial determinants; (c) interaction of the alpha 1 and alpha 2 domains in the hybrid molecule results in the loss of CTL determinants that are present on both parental molecules. Thus, using human CTL clones, target cells, and HLA molecules, we show that the interaction of the alpha 1 and alpha 2 domains alters CTL determinants in ways not directly predictable from primary structure.

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes specific for self tumor immunoglobulin express T cell receptor delta chain.

CTL are thought to play a role in the elimination of transformed cells in vivo. The effectiveness of such CTL is in part dependent on recognition of tumor specific antigens. Among the best characterized tumor-specific antigens are the unique or idiotypic determinants on the Ig of B cell lymphomas. Here we describe the generation and properties of human CTL specific for the idiotype on autologous B cell tumors. These cells are CD3+,CD4-,CD8- and express the delta chain of the TCR. Such cells may prove useful in tumor-specific adoptive therapy.

Interleukin 3 is a growth factor for human follicular B cell lymphoma.

More than one-half of adults with non-Hodgkin's B cell lymphomas present with low-grade follicular lymphomas. These tumor cells are found in close association with follicular T lymphocytes and dendritic cells, suggesting that the surrounding cells may play a role in the support of follicular tumors. Supernatants from activated human peripheral blood lymphocytes were found to promote the in vitro proliferation of follicular tumor cells. This effect was entirely due to interleukin 3 (IL-3), a factor generally thought to cause the growth and differentiation of immature hematopoietic cells. IL-3 receptors were detected on fresh isolates of all primary follicular cell tumors examined. These findings suggest that follicular cell tumors may be dependent in vivo on IL-3 and that therapies directed against IL-3, its receptor, or the T cells that produce it may be effective treatment for follicular lymphoma.

The isolation and sequence of a novel gene from a human functional T cell line.

Using a subtractive hybridization procedure we have constructed a cDNA library enriched for sequences present in functional human T cell lines, but not in human EBV-transformed B cell lines. We have isolated a cDNA clone, AH2-519, representing a novel gene, designated 519. This novel gene is expressed in functional human cytolytic and Th cell lines but not in a variety of other cell lines, including several long-term human T cell tumor lines. The expression of gene 519 is inducible in cultures of normal human PBL using antigenic or mitogenic stimulation. Neither the DNA sequence determined from a full-length cDNA clone overlapping with clone AH2-519 nor the amino acid sequence of its predicted protein product has significant homology to published sequences in the GenBank or NBRF databases. The restricted expression of gene 519 suggests that its gene product is involved in the growth and/or differentiation of normal T cells. The data also show that normal, nontransformed, functional T cells express gene products that can not be readily identified in long-term tumor lines of the same cell lineage.

Human T cell clones express functional homing receptors required for normal lymphocyte trafficking.

To function efficiently in vivo, lymphocytes must circulate from the blood into lymphoid tissues and other sites of immune reaction. Herein, we show that human cytotoxic and helper T cell clones and lines, maintained in vitro with IL-2, express the functional capacity to recognize and bind to high endothelial venules (HEV), a capacity essential for lymphocyte exit from the blood, and hence for normal lymphocyte trafficking. The expression of functional homing receptors distinguishes human T cell clones from their murine counterparts, which uniformly lack receptors for HEV and are unable to migrate normally from the blood in vivo. The results raise the possibility that human T cell clones may be more effective in mediating in vivo immune responses than is suggested by murine models.

Biology and clinical relevance of granulysin.

Granulysin is a cytolytic and proinflammatory molecule first identified by a screen for genes expressed 'late' (3-5 days) after activation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Granulysin is present in cytolytic granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. Granulysin is made in a 15-kDa form that is cleaved into a 9-kDa form at both the amino and the carboxy termini. The 15-kDa form is constitutively secreted, and its function remains poorly understood. The 9-kDa form is released by receptor-mediated granule exocytosis. Nine kiloDalton granulysin is broadly cytolytic against tumors and microbes, including gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, fungi/yeast and parasites. It kills the causative agents of both tuberculosis and malaria. Granulysin is also a chemoattractant for T lymphocytes, monocytes and other inflammatory cells and activates the expression of a number of cytokines, including regulated upon activation T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, MCP-3, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1 alpha, interleukin (IL)-10, IL-1, IL-6 and interferon (IFN)-alpha. Granulysin is implicated in a myriad of diseases including infection, cancer, transplantation, autoimmunity, skin and reproductive maladies. Small synthetic forms of granulysin are being developed as novel antibiotics. Studies of the full-length forms may give rise to new diagnostics and therapeutics for use in a wide variety of diseases.

Differing lymphokine profiles of functional subsets of human CD4 and CD8 T cell clones.

Functional subsets of human T cells were delineated by analyzing patterns of lymphokines produced by clones from individuals with leprosy and by T cell clones of known function. CD4 clones from individuals with strong cell-mediated immunity produced predominantly interferon-gamma, whereas those clones that enhanced antibody formation produced interleukin-4. CD8 cytotoxic T cells secreted interferon-gamma. Interleukin-4 was produced by CD8 T suppressor clones from immunologically unresponsive individuals with leprosy and was found to be necessary for suppression in vitro. Both the classic reciprocal relation between antibody formation and cell-mediated immunity and resistance or susceptibility to certain infections may be explained by T cell subsets differing in patterns of lymphokine production.

Overlap in the repertoires of peptides bound in vivo by a group of related class I HLA-B allotypes.

BACKGROUND: Polymorphism among class I molecules of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) confers allotypic specificity on the peptides that these molecules bind and present to cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Evolution of new human HLA class I alleles usually involves gene recombination events that replace a segment of one allele with the homologous region of another. In this study, the impact of these evolutionary changes has been assessed by comparison of the peptide-binding specificities of six related HLA-B allotypes. RESULTS: Endogenous peptides bound by HLA-B*5401, HLA-B*5501, HLA-B*5502, HLA-B*5601, HLA-B*6701 and HLA-B*0702 were characterized. Despite differing by 1-9 of the amino-acid residues comprising their peptide-binding sites, all these allotypes share a dominant preference for peptides that have proline at position 2. Polymorphism results in differing selection of carboxy-terminal and secondary anchor residues, but the peptide-binding specificities are sufficiently similar that there is overlap in the repertoires of peptides bound by these allotypes. Complete sequence determination of individual peptides revealed four that could be isolated from two or more allotypes. Members of the closely related HLA-B22 family--HLA-B*5401, HLA-B*5501, HLA-B*5502 and HLA-B*5601--show only minor differences in their peptide-binding specificities. This marked similarity is reflected at the functional level, as alloreactive cytotoxic T lymphocytes generated against HLA-B*5401 and HLA-B*5501 exhibited cross-reactive recognition. CONCLUSION: The isolation of identical endogenously bound peptides from six HLA-B allotypes demonstrates overlap in the repertoires of peptides bound in vivo by different allotypes. We speculate that the shared preference for binding peptides with proline at position 2 reflects a selective pressure to retain this specificity, which may be based upon peptide availability in vivo. Characterization of the overlap between the repertoires of peptides bound by HLA-B allotypes could simplify the development of peptide-based vaccines that are targeted to cytotoxic T cells, as single peptides would be effective for humans of different HLA types.

A human class II MHC-derived peptide antagonizes phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase to block IL-2 signaling.

MHC molecules bind antigenic peptides and present them to T cells. There is a growing body of evidence that MHC molecules also serve other functions. We and others have described synthetic peptides derived from regions of MHC molecules that inhibit T-cell proliferation or cytotoxicity in an allele-nonspecific manner that is independent of interaction with the T-cell receptor. In this report, we describe the mechanism of action of a synthetic MHC class II-derived peptide that blocks T-cell activation induced by IL-2. Both this peptide, corresponding to residues 65-79 of DQA*03011 (DQ 65-79), and rapamycin inhibit p70 S6 kinase activity, but only DQ 65-79 blocks Akt kinase activity, placing the effects of DQ 65-79 upstream of mTOR, a PI kinase family member. DQ 65-79, but not rapamycin, inhibits phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) activity in vitro. The peptide is taken up by cells, as demonstrated by confocal microscopy. These findings indicate that DQ 65-79 acts as an antagonist with PI 3-kinase, repressing downstream signaling events and inhibiting proliferation. Understanding the mechanism of action of immunomodulatory peptides may provide new insights into T-cell activation and allow the development of novel immunosuppressive agents.

The induction of tolerance to alloantigens using HLA-based synthetic peptides.

The identification of immunomodulatory approaches that allow the induction of antigen-specific unresponsiveness is required for long-term graft survival without the complications of chronic immunosuppression. Recent novel strategies based upon treatment with synthetic peptides corresponding to linear sequences of MHC class I and II molecules reproducibly induce tolerance to alloantigens. Although the mechanisms involved are still not completely understood, the phenomenology reported makes these approaches promising for evaluation in clinical trials.

Immunosuppressive peptides corresponding to MHC class I sequences.

The induction of tolerance is a long-standing goal in transplantation. Intact MHC molecules, or fragments of them, are being used to render T cells unresponsive both in vitro and in vivo. Elucidation of the mechanisms underlying the effects of these treatments should aid the design of novel therapies for transplantation.

KLF13 regulates the differentiation-dependent human papillomavirus life cycle in keratinocytes through STAT5 and IL-8.

High-risk strains of human papillomavirus (HPV) are the causative agents of cervical and anogenital cancers and are associated with 5% of all human cancers. Although prophylactic vaccines targeting a subset of HPV types are available, they are ineffective in HPV-infected individuals. Elucidation of the mechanisms controlling HPV replication may allow development of novel anti-HPV therapeutics. Infectious HPV virions are produced during terminal differentiation of host cells. The process of viral maturation requires synergistic interactions between viral and cellular proteins that leads to amplification of the viral genome and expression of late viral genes. Here we show that the transcription factor Kruppel-like factor 13 (KLF13) has a critical role in the HPV life cycle. KLF13 is overexpressed in HPV-positive keratinocytes and cervical cancer cell lines. Expression of KLF13 in normal cervical epithelium is low but increases significantly in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and invasive squamous cervical cancer. After HPV infection, the E7 protein suppresses ubiquitin ligase FBW7 expression leading to an increase in KLF13 expression. Reduction of KLF13 with short hairpin RNA in differentiating HPV-positive cells resulted in diminished levels of viral gene expression and genome amplification. Knockdown of KLF13 also reduced the level of the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription 5, which led to the downregulation of the ataxia-telangiectasia mutated DNA damage pathway and the chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8). In addition, neutralization of IL-8 diminished viral genome amplification in differentiating HPV-positive cells. Thus, KLF13 is critical for the activation of the HPV productive life cycle and is likely involved in initiation and progression of cervical cancer.

Recombinant gamma interferon increases the binding of peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes and a Leu-3+ T lymphocyte clone to cultured keratinocytes and to a malignant cutaneous squamous carcinoma cell line that is blocked by antibody against the LFA-1 molecule.

Because keratinocytes (KCs) express HLA-DR in a wide variety of skin diseases in which mononuclear leukocytes are observed in close apposition to KCs (i.e., graft-versus-host disease), and since gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) induces HLA-DR expression on KCs, we asked whether IFN-gamma treatment of KCs would influence the adherence of mononuclear leukocytes. When allogeneic peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBML) and a Leu-3+ T cell clone were coincubated with IFN-gamma-treated KCs (300 U/ml, 3 days), there was a marked increase in binding compared with nontreated KCs. Similar binding results were obtained using a cutaneous squamous carcinoma cell line (SCL-1) after IFN-gamma treatment. The IFN effect was relatively specific for IFN-gamma, as neither IFN-alpha nor -beta had any effect. Tumor necrosis factor exposure (500 U/ml, 3 days) increased the binding of the Leu-3+ T cell clone to both KCs and SCL-1 cells. Neutrophils displayed a less marked (but statistically significant) increase in binding to IFN-gamma-treated KCs. Using the Leu-3+ cell clone and SCL-1 cells, detailed kinetic analysis of the effect of IFN-gamma on binding was performed. The increased adherence between the cells began to appear after only 7 hours of treatment with r-IFN-gamma (300 U/ml) and reached a plateau at 48 hours, with significantly enhanced binding continuing for at least 48 hours after removal of IFN-gamma. The mechanism of binding was explored by preincubation of the PBML/Leu-3+ T cells with anti-LFA-1 (lymphocyte function-associated antigen) antibody (0.6-6.0 micrograms/ml), which totally inhibited the binding with no effect by anti-LFA-2 or -3 or class I or II antibodies despite documented binding of these antibodies to the cells. These results suggest that, after exposure to IFN-gamma, the ability of KCs to bind mononuclear leukocytes is strongly enhanced, and this adherence may be important in leukocyte trafficking in the skin as well as contributing to altered KC-leukocyte interaction, which may be of fundamental importance in a variety of skin disease.

A novel method for measuring CTL and NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity using annexin V and two-color flow cytometry.

An assay based on two-color flow cytometry has been developed to measure CTL and NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity. After effector/target cells are incubated together, CTL or NK populations are stained with an effector cell specific PE-conjugated mAb. Subsequently, annexin V-FITC binds to cells expressing phosphatidylserine (an early marker of apoptosis) on the cell surface. Target cells are gated upon as PE-negative and quantified with respect to their annexin V positivity. The shift from annexin Vneg to annexin Vhi is a discrete event such that all target cells fall within discernible populations with respect to annexin V. There is a strong correlation between cytotoxicity measured with our assay and a standard 51Cr release assay (r2 = 0.989). The PE/annexin V assay shows increased sensitivity at early timepoints after target/effector cell mixing. In addition, this method allows for analysis of target cells at the single cell level. Therefore, we have described a promising new technique to measure in vitro cell-mediated cytotoxicity. It avoids the potential difficulties of working with radioactive isotopes, and offers increased sensitivity and versatility.