A neurological foundation for peaceful negotiations.

Glowacki explored the conditions required for peace and argued its preconditions arose only within the last 100,000 years. The present commentary addresses some major brain changes that occurred only in Homo sapiens within that period of time and the verbal and nonverbal cognitive sequelae of those neurological changes that may have aided the diplomatic negotiations required for peaceful solutions.

Impact of self-reported cognitive dysfunction on the alternative model of personality disorders among older adults.

METHOD: Older adults (N = 202) completed the Levels of Personality Functioning Scale-Self-Report, Personality Inventory for DSM-5, and Coolidge Axis II Inventory with its six self-report cognitive dysfunction scales. RESULTS: Results suggested high correlational overlap between subjective cognitive problems with personality functioning and pathological personality, as measured by the AMPD. Hierarchical regressions revealed that subjective measures of executive functions, perceptual motor, and language difficulties were most strongly related to the AMPD's constructs. Results are discussed in the context of prior research on objective cognitive impairment among individuals with PDs. CONCLUSION: The degree of overlap found within the current older adult sample suggested an age-related problem or potential age-bias, with older adults being at-risk of (a) having their subjective cognitive problems being incorrectly interpreted as personality pathology under the AMPD or (b) having personality pathology being overlooked under the AMPD, with symptoms instead attributed to subjective cognitive issues. This study suggested that subjective cognitive dysfunction may be one mechanism that contributes to differential performance of the AMPD among older adults.

The psychometric properties of a self-report inventory of autistic symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorder.

INTRODUCTION AND METHODS: This study examined 85 parental-reports with 85 self-reports of autistic symptoms with the 84-item Coolidge Autistic Symptom Survey (CASS). The CASS covers all of the diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), as no studies to date have compared the self-reports of individuals with autism with parent- or significant-other-reports of those individuals using the complete DSM-5. RESULTS: The CASS-Parental-Report and CASS-Self-Report exhibited excellent internal reliability (α = 0.97 and 0.96, respectively). There was support for the hypothesis that parental-reports and self-reports would be similar (r = 0.66, p < 0.001). DISCUSSION: In conclusion, the CASS should be considered a promising tool for assessing autistic symptoms from both parent- and self-perspectives.

Relationships Among Executive Dysfunction, Constructive Worrying, and Worry Responses in Older Adults.

Worry is a ubiquitous human experience and core symptom of anxiety. The present study examined the extent to which specific aspects of worry are related to perceived executive dysfunction in older adults. A total of 100 older adult participants (M age = 68.82 years; range = 65-79 years) completed the Worry Behaviors Inventory, the Coolidge Axis II Inventory Executive Dysfunctions Scale, and the Constructive and Unconstructive Worry Questionnaire. Multiple regression analyses found that worry constructiveness and response behaviors were predictive of executive dysfunction. Specifically, greater avoidance behaviors and unconstructive worry were uniquely predictive of greater executive dysfunctions. Thus, findings indicate that worry constructiveness and approaches to worry management are significantly related to cognitive functioning in older adults. These findings imply a need to assess both worry and executive dysfunction to more accurately determine causal factors regarding anxiety and cognitive decline in older adults.

Genetic predilections and predispositions for the development of shamanism.

Singh's cultural evolutionary theory of shamanism provides a valuable framework for understanding shamanism. We argue, however, that a full understanding of shamanism should incorporate the psychological predilections and genetic predispositions commonly found in individual shamans. In other words, only a small subset of individuals in a culture is prone or attracted to shamanistic practices, regardless of the evolutionary value of those practices.

Archeological insights into hominin cognitive evolution.

How did the human mind evolve? How and when did we come to think in the ways we do? The last thirty years have seen an explosion in research related to the brain and cognition. This research has encompassed a range of biological and social sciences, from epigenetics and cognitive neuroscience to social and developmental psychology. Following naturally on this efflorescence has been a heightened interest in the evolution of the brain and cognition. Evolutionary scholars, including paleoanthropologists, have deployed the standard array of evolutionary methods. Ethological and experimental evidence has added significantly to our understanding of nonhuman brains and cognition, especially those of nonhuman primates. Studies of fossil brains through endocasts and sophisticated imaging techniques have revealed evolutionary changes in gross neural anatomy. Psychologists have also gotten into the game through application of reverse engineering to experimentally based descriptions of cognitive functions. For hominin evolution, there is another rich source of evidence of cognition, the archeological record. Using the methods of Paleolithic archeology and the theories and models of cognitive science, evolutionary cognitive archeology documents developments in the hominin mind that would otherwise be inaccessible.

Deliberate self-harm among younger and older adults.

This study examined self-harming behaviors among younger and older adults who completed the Self-Harm Inventory (SHI). A 2 (age group) × 2 (gender) analysis of variance showed a significant main effect for age such that younger adult students (M = 3.42, SD = 3.86) had higher SHI total scores than community-dwelling older adults (M = 1.58, SD = 2.35). Younger adults endorsed "Yes" responses significantly more frequently than older adults on 13 of 22 items. Future research should examine specific behaviors of older adults who self-harm more frequently and explore relationships between self-harming behaviors and other risk and resiliency factors for elder suicide.

Geriatric Anxiety Scale: item response theory analysis, differential item functioning, and creation of a ten-item short form (GAS-10).

BACKGROUND: The Geriatric Anxiety Scale (GAS; Segal et al. (Segal, D. L., June, A., Payne, M., Coolidge, F. L. and Yochim, B. (2010). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 709-714. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.05.002) is a self-report measure of anxiety that was designed to address unique issues associated with anxiety assessment in older adults. This study is the first to use item response theory (IRT) to examine the psychometric properties of a measure of anxiety in older adults. METHOD: A large sample of older adults (n = 581; mean age = 72.32 years, SD = 7.64 years, range = 60 to 96 years; 64% women; 88% European American) completed the GAS. IRT properties were examined. The presence of differential item functioning (DIF) or measurement bias by age and sex was assessed, and a ten-item short form of the GAS (called the GAS-10) was created. RESULTS: All GAS items had discrimination parameters of 1.07 or greater. Items from the somatic subscale tended to have lower discrimination parameters than items on the cognitive or affective subscales. Two items were flagged for DIF, but the impact of the DIF was negligible. Women scored significantly higher than men on the GAS and its subscales. Participants in the young-old group (60 to 79 years old) scored significantly higher on the cognitive subscale than participants in the old-old group (80 years old and older). CONCLUSIONS: Results from the IRT analyses indicated that the GAS and GAS-10 have strong psychometric properties among older adults. We conclude by discussing implications and future research directions.

Relationships among depressive, passive-aggressive, sadistic and self-defeating personality disorder features with suicidal ideation and reasons for living among older adults.

OBJECTIVES: Suicide among older adults is a major public health problem in the USA. In our recent study, we examined relationships between the 10 standard DSM-5 personality disorders (PDs) and suicidal ideation, and found that the PD dimensions explained a majority (55%) of the variance in suicidal ideation. To extend this line of research, the purpose of the present follow-up study was to explore relationships between the four PDs that previously were included in prior versions of the DSM (depressive, passive-aggressive, sadistic, and self-defeating) with suicidal ideation and reasons for living. METHOD: Community-dwelling older adults (N = 109; age range = 60-95 years; 61% women; 88% European-American) completed anonymously the Coolidge Axis II Inventory, the Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL), and the Geriatric Suicide Ideation Scale (GSIS). RESULTS: Correlational analyses revealed that simple relationships between PD scales with GSIS subscales were generally stronger than with RFL subscales. Regarding GSIS subscales, all four PD scales had medium-to-large positive relationships, with the exception of sadistic PD traits, which was unrelated to the death ideation subscale. Multiple regression analyses showed that the amount of explained variance for the GSIS (48%) was higher than for the RFL (11%), and this finding was attributable to the high predictive power of depressive PD. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that depressive PD features are strongly related to increased suicidal thinking and lowered resilience to suicide among older adults. Assessment of depressive PD features should also be especially included in the assessment of later-life suicidal risk.

Retrospective assessment of premorbid psychopathology and cognitive impairments in bipolar disorder.

The present study investigated whether premorbid psychopathological and cognitive impairment symptoms could be retrospectively identified during the childhood and adolescence of those later diagnosed with bipolar disorder (BPD). The present sample consisted of 30 adults diagnosed with BPD, 30 of their significant-others, a group-matched control group of 30 adults (without any reported psychological or cognitive disorders), and 30 of their significant-others. The adults diagnosed with BPD and the control group completed a self-report form of the retrospective version of the Coolidge Personality and Neuropsychological Inventory (CPNI-R) as they were before the age of 16 years. The significant-others reported on the adults diagnosed with BPD or upon their controls. Initial two-factor analyses of variance revealed that on a comprehensive measure of psychopathology and of cognitive impairment, those diagnosed with BPD scored significantly higher than the control group on the self-report and the significant-other forms, with large effects sizes. Overall, the overarching research hypothesis was confirmed: adults diagnosed with BPD and their significant-others could report salient prodromes during their childhood or adolescence.

Are alexithymia and schizoid personality disorder synonymous diagnoses?

Relationships among alexithymia, personality disorders, and higher-order psychopathological and interpersonal dimensions were examined in 199 college students and a close relative of each. Alexithymia, the difficulty to express and identify emotions, was measured by the Observer Alexithymia Scale (OAS; [Haviland, M. G., Warren, W. L., & Riggs, M. L. (2000). An observer scale to measure alexithymia. Psychosomatics, 41, 385-392]), which was completed by each student's relative. Each student completed three self-report measures: the Coolidge Axis II Inventory (CATI; [Coolidge, F. L. (2000). Coolidge Axis II Inventory: Manual. Colorado Springs, CO: Author.), the Five Dimensional Personality Test (5DPT; [van Kampen, D. (2009). Personality and psychopathology: A theory-based revision of Eysenck's PEN model. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 5, 9-21]), and the Horney-Coolidge Tridimensional Inventory (HCTI; [Coolidge, F. L. (1998). Horney-Coolidge Tridimensional Inventory: Manual. Colorado Springs, CO: Author]). Results indicated that higher levels of alexithymia are associated with personality disorders and their traits, such as schizoid, avoidant, and paranoid. With regard to the issue of the similarity and difference between alexithymia and schizoid personality disorder, there was sufficient evidence across all of the measures to suggest that they are not synonymous entities. Finally, alexithymic traits were associated with concurrent depressive traits even in a non-clinical sample.

Persian version of the Geriatric Anxiety Scale: translation and preliminary psychometric properties among Iranian older adults.

OBJECTIVE: The Geriatric Anxiety Scale (GAS) is a new self-report screening measure designed for older adults. Due to the burgeoning Iranian population of older adults and the need for validated, culturally-appropriate screening measures for anxiety in Iran, the purposes of the present study were to translate the GAS into Persian and to explore its preliminary psychometric properties. METHOD: Iranian older adults (N = 295; M age = 67.0 years) completed the GAS and the Iranian version of the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15). RESULTS: Cronbach's alpha for the GAS total score and the GAS subscales were excellent (Total score α = .92; Cognitive α = .81; Somatic α = .84; Affective α = .80). As expected, each subscale was significantly positively correlated (all p's < .01) with the other subscales. The subscales share common variance ranging from 42% to 56%. The GAS total score and GAS subscale scores were significantly positively correlated with the GDS-15, with medium effect sizes (GAS Total r = .55; Cognitive r = .51; Somatic r = .50; Affective r = .48). Finally, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to investigate the factor structure of the Persian version of the GAS. Results support a one factor solution (general anxiety) for this Iranian sample. CONCLUSION: This study provides preliminary psychometric support for the Persian version of the GAS as a screening measure for anxiety in Iranian older adults, with a one-dimensional factor structure.

On the relationship between neurocognitive measures and olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19 patients with and without anosmia.

One of the predominant symptoms of the COVID-19 virus is the complete (anosmia) or partial (hyposmia) loss of smell. Anosmia may be a critical neurocognitive symptom because there is an empirically demonstrated association of anosmia with neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, etc. The present study assessed the neurocognitive disorder patterns in recovered COVID-19 patients who either self-reported anosmia or its absence. Of the 60 adult participants (n = 32 males, n = 28 females; Mage = 20.78 years, range = 18-31 years), 15 reported COVID-19 induced anosmia, 15 reported COVID-19 without anosmia, and 30 reported not having contracted COVID-19. The participants were first administered a 10-item smell test, and analysis of variance revealed significantly better scores for the control group than the other two groups. Further, there was no significant difference in smell scores between the patients who self-reported anosmia or denied it. This statistical pattern was consistent across all neuropsychological tests: short- and long-term verbal memory, digit span, Trail Making, and a self-report 46-item neurocognitive scale. Regardless of the self-report of anosmia or denial, all thirty COVID-19 patients scored significantly poorer than the control group on all of the tests and neurocognitive scale. In summary, the self-report of anosmia appears to be unreliable, and the COVID-19 patients who were found to be anosmic on the initial objective smell test demonstrated poorer neuropsychological performance than controls.

Prevalence of ADHD and its subtypes in male and female adult prison inmates.

There are few published studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adult inmates, and even fewer studies that have considered ADHD in adult inmates by gender. The present study examined the prevalence of ADHD, its subtypes, and associated psychological and neuropsychological comorbidity as a function of gender in a sample of 3,962 inmates (3,439 men and 523 women; mean age = 33.6 years, range 17-73) who had completed the 250-item, self-report, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (Text Revision) (DSM-IV-TR)-aligned Coolidge Correctional Inventory (CCI). The overall ADHD prevalence rate found was 10.5%, which is substantially higher than the rate among adults in the general population (2-5%). The female inmate ADHD prevalence rate (15.1%) was higher than the male inmate ADHD rate (9.8%), consistent with some previous studies. The most prevalent ADHD subtype for both genders was the hyperactive-impulsive subtype. The combined and inattentive ADHD subtypes had higher levels of comorbid psychopathology than the hyperactive-impulsive ADHD subtype. As the presence of ADHD and associated gender differentials may impact the success of rehabilitation and educative programs with inmates, the assessment of ADHD and comorbid psychopathology should be a priority in initial inmate screening and evaluation.

Analysis of the psychometric properties of the Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire (INQ) among community-dwelling older adults.

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the structure and validity of the use of the 18-item Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire (INQ-18), a measure of thwarted belongingness (TB) and perceived burdensomeness (PB), among older adults. METHOD: Community-dwelling older adults (N = 284; mean age = 73 years; age range = 64-96 years; 56% women) anonymously completed a questionnaire packet. RESULTS: Principal axis factor analysis indicated that two factors should be retained. Items in the first factor reflected the concept of TB, whereas items in the second factor were consistent with the concept of PB. Both factors had medium-to-large positive correlations with hopelessness, depression, suicide ideation, and low meaning in life, providing evidence for convergent validity. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this study support the use of the INQ-18 among community-dwelling older adults.

Psychometric properties of the behavior rating inventory of executive function, second edition (BRIEF2) in a sample of children with ADHD in Iran.

This study investigated the psychometric properties of a Persian translation of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function(BRIEF2) in 253 children with ADHD in Iran (137 boys, 116 girls)ages 8 to 12 years old (M = 10.04; SD = 1.42). The parents of the children completed the Persian BRIEF2 and the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI). The findings indicated that the Persian version of BRIEF2 had good reliability (internal and test-retest) and satisfactory to good validity (convergent and construct). With respect to its construct validity, confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a three-factor solution was the best model fit for the nine subscales of the BRIEF2, which supports the valid interpretation of the three BRIEF2 indexes in the Persian BRIEF2. These findings support the clinical relevance of the Persian BRIEF in Iranian children with ADHD, as well as the multidimensional nature of executive functions.

Clinical syndromes, personality disorders, and neurocognitive differences in male and female inmates.

This study examined clinical syndromes, personality disorders, and neurocognitive problems in adult male (n = 523) and female inmates (n = 523) and a sample of unincarcerated adult women (n = 523). Inmates were administered the Coolidge Correctional Inventory (CCI), and the unincarcerated sample was given an identical test, the Coolidge Axis II Inventory. Although there were significant differences between the two inmate groups on a majority of the 32 CCI scales, only two scales achieved a medium effect size. The two inmate groups were found to be highly similar in a comparison of ranked personality disorder prevalence rates. Consistent with previous literature, male inmates had a significantly higher prevalence of antisocial personality disorder than female inmates (24% vs. 18%). Female inmates had double the prevalence of male inmates on the borderline and histrionic personality disorder scales. Female inmates also reported significantly more general neuropsychological dysfunction, specifically memory problems and neurosomatic symptoms, than male inmates. Female inmates also reported significantly higher levels of anxiety, depression, symptoms of schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and depersonalization than male inmates. Overall, the findings support previous research of high levels of psychological and neuropsychological problems in inmates, regardless of gender, and reinforces the need for comprehensive mental health screening of offender populations.

Preliminary psychometric properties of a measure of Karen Horney's Tridimensional theory in children and adolescents.

This study established the psychometric properties of a child and adolescent version of the Horney-Coolidge Tridimensional Inventory (HCTI), which assesses psychoanalyst Karen Horney's theory of neurotic types. Parents of 302 children (ages 5 to 17 years; median age = 12.0 years) completed the new 45-item version of the HCTI and the Coolidge Personality and Neuropsychological Inventory (CPNI) about their children. The three main scales (Compliance, Aggression, and Detachment) had good internal scale reliability and excellent test-retest reliability. Principal components analysis supported Horney's three dimensions and a six-component substructure. There was also sufficient construct validity with personality disorder scales from the CPNI with the three HCTI dimensions and their six components. The implications of the findings are discussed for Horneyan theory.

Do nightmares and generalized anxiety disorder in childhood and adolescence have a common genetic origin?

The present study investigated the prevalence and heritability of nightmares and their comorbidity with psychopathology in a sample (N = 1,318) of children, adolescents, and child and adolescent twins ranging in age from 4 to 17 years old. The prevalence of terrible nightmares was estimated to be 6.4%, which is similar to previous studies. There were marginal gender differences in this rate (7.7% for boys; 5.1% in girls), contrary to previous studies that purport higher rates for girls. There was little evidence for prevalence changes across age. Nightmares were highly heritable and attributed to an additive genetic influence (51%) and nonshared environmental effects (49%). There was little evidence for a shared genetic correlation for nightmares and generalized waking anxiety (Overanxious Disorder of Childhood). There was also a substantial and pervasive comorbid psychopathology for those parents who reported Strongly True on Item 59: My child has terrible nightmares on the 200-item parent-as-respondent, Coolidge Personality and Neuropsychological Inventory. Issues in estimating prevalence rates of nightmares were identified.