Staphylococcus aureus fur regulates the expression of virulence factors that contribute to the pathogenesis of pneumonia.

The tremendous success of Staphylococcus aureus as a pathogen is due to the controlled expression of a diverse array of virulence factors. The effects of host environments on the expression of virulence factors and the mechanisms by which S. aureus adapts to colonize distinct host tissues are largely unknown. Vertebrates have evolved to sequester nutrient iron from invading bacteria, and iron availability is a signal that alerts pathogenic microorganisms when they enter the hostile host environment. Consistent with this, we report here that S. aureus senses alterations in the iron status via the ferric uptake regulator (Fur) and alters the abundance of a large number of virulence factors. These Fur-mediated changes protect S. aureus against killing by neutrophils, and Fur is required for full staphylococcal virulence in a murine model of infection. A potential mechanistic explanation for the impact of Fur on virulence is provided by the observation that Fur coordinates the reciprocal expression of cytolysins and a subset of immunomodulatory proteins. More specifically, S. aureus lacking fur exhibits decreased expression of immunomodulatory proteins and increased expression of cytolysins. These findings reveal that Fur is involved in initiating a regulatory program that organizes the expression of virulence factors during the pathogenesis of S. aureus pneumonia.

Metal chelation and inhibition of bacterial growth in tissue abscesses.

Bacterial infection often results in the formation of tissue abscesses, which represent the primary site of interaction between invading bacteria and the innate immune system. We identify the host protein calprotectin as a neutrophil-dependent factor expressed inside Staphylococcus aureus abscesses. Neutrophil-derived calprotectin inhibited S. aureus growth through chelation of nutrient Mn2+ and Zn2+: an activity that results in reprogramming of the bacterial transcriptome. The abscesses of mice lacking calprotectin were enriched in metal, and staphylococcal proliferation was enhanced in these metal-rich abscesses. These results demonstrate that calprotectin is a critical factor in the innate immune response to infection and define metal chelation as a strategy for inhibiting microbial growth inside abscessed tissue.

Interaction between cell division proteins FtsE and FtsZ.

FtsE and FtsX, which are widely conserved homologs of ABC transporters and interact with each other, have important but unknown functions in bacterial cell division. Coimmunoprecipitation of Escherichia coli cell extracts revealed that a functional FLAG-tagged version of FtsE, the putative ATP-binding component, interacts with FtsZ, the bacterial tubulin homolog required to assemble the cytokinetic Z ring and recruit the components of the divisome. This interaction is independent of FtsX, the predicted membrane component of the ABC transporter, which has been shown previously to interact with FtsE. The interaction also occurred independently of FtsA or ZipA, two other E. coli cell division proteins that interact with FtsZ. In addition, FtsZ copurified with FLAG-FtsE. Surprisingly, the conserved C-terminal tail of FtsZ, which interacts with other cell division proteins, such as FtsA and ZipA, was dispensable for interaction with FtsE. In support of a direct interaction with FtsZ, targeting of a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-FtsE fusion to Z rings required FtsZ, but not FtsA. Although GFP-FtsE failed to target Z rings in the absence of ZipA, its localization was restored in the presence of the ftsA* bypass suppressor, indicating that the requirement for ZipA is indirect. Coexpression of FLAG-FtsE and FtsX under certain conditions resulted in efficient formation of minicells, also consistent with an FtsE-FtsZ interaction and with the idea that FtsE and FtsX regulate the activity of the divisome.

Z-ring-independent interaction between a subdomain of FtsA and late septation proteins as revealed by a polar recruitment assay.

FtsA, a member of the ATPase superfamily that includes actin and bacterial actin homologs, is essential for cell division of Escherichia coli and is recruited to the Z ring. In turn, recruitment of later essential division proteins to the Z ring is dependent on FtsA. In a polar recruitment assay, we found that FtsA can recruit at least two late proteins, FtsI and FtsN, to the cell poles independently of Z rings. Moreover, a unique structural domain of FtsA, subdomain 1c, which is divergent in the other ATPase superfamily members, is sufficient for this recruitment but not required for the ability of FtsA to localize to Z rings. Surprisingly, targeting the 1c subdomain to the Z ring by fusing it to FtsZ could partially suppress a thermosensitive ftsA mutation. These results suggest that subdomain 1c of FtsA is a completely independent functional domain with an important role in interacting with a septation protein subassembly.

Exploring intracellular space: function of the Min system in round-shaped Escherichia coli.

The MinCDE proteins help to select cell division sites in normal cylindrical Escherichia coli by oscillating along the long axis, preventing unwanted polar divisions. To determine how the Min system might function in cells with multiple potential division planes, we investigated its role in a round-cell rodA mutant. Round cells lacking MinCDE were viable, but growth, morphology and positioning of cell division sites were abnormal relative to Min+ cells. In round cells with a long axis, such as those undergoing cell division, green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions to MinD almost always oscillated parallel to the long axis. However, perfect spheres or irregularly shaped cells exhibited MinD movement to and from multiple sites on the cell surface. A MinE-GFP fusion exhibited similar behavior. These results indicate that the Min proteins can potentially localize anywhere in the cell but tend to move a certain maximum distance from their previous assembly site, thus favoring movement along the cell's long axis. A new model for the spatial control of division planes by the Min system in round cells is proposed.

Effects of phospholipid composition on MinD-membrane interactions in vitro and in vivo.

The peripheral membrane ATPase MinD is a component of the Min system responsible for correct placement of the division site in Escherichia coli cells. By rapidly migrating from one cell pole to the other, MinD helps to block unwanted septation events at the poles. MinD is an amphitropic protein that is localized to the membrane in its ATP-bound form. A C-terminal domain essential for membrane localization is predicted to be an amphipathic alpha-helix with hydrophobic residues interacting with lipid acyl chains and cationic residues on the opposite face of the helix interacting with the head groups of anionic phospholipids (Szeto, T. H., Rowland, S. L., Rothfield, L. I., and King, G. F. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 99, 15693-15698). To investigate whether E. coli MinD displays a preference for anionic phospholipids, we first examined the localization dynamics of a green fluorescent protein-tagged derivative of MinD expressed in a mutant of E. coli that lacks phosphatidylethanolamine. In these cells, which contain only anionic phospholipids (phosphatidylglycerol and cardiolipin), green fluorescent protein-MinD assembled into dynamic focal clusters instead of the broad zones typical of cells with normal phospholipid content. In experiments with liposomes composed of only zwitterionic, only anionic, or a mixture of anionic and zwitterionic phospholipids, purified MinD bound to these liposomes in the presence of ATP with positive cooperativity with respect to the protein concentration and exhibited Hill coefficients of about 2. Oligomerization of MinD on the liposome surface also was detected by fluorescence resonance energy transfer between MinD molecules labeled with different fluorescent probes. The affinity of MinD-ATP for anionic liposomes as well as liposomes composed of both anionic and zwitterionic phospholipids increased 9- and 2-fold, respectively, relative to zwitterionic liposomes. The degree of acyl chain unsaturation contributed positively to binding strength. These results suggest that MinD has a preference for anionic phospholipids and that MinD oscillation behavior, and therefore cell division site selection, may be regulated by membrane phospholipid composition.