Increased reports of severe myocarditis associated with enterovirus infection in neonates, United Kingdom, 27 June 2022 to 26 April 2023.

Enteroviruses are a common cause of seasonal childhood infections. The vast majority of enterovirus infections are mild and self-limiting, although neonates can sometimes develop severe disease. Myocarditis is a rare complication of enterovirus infection. Between June 2022 and April 2023, twenty cases of severe neonatal enteroviral myocarditis caused by coxsackie B viruses were reported in the United Kingdom. Sixteen required critical care support and two died. Enterovirus PCR on whole blood was the most sensitive diagnostic test. We describe the initial public health investigation into this cluster and aim to raise awareness among paediatricians, laboratories and public health specialists.

Transmission dynamics of COVID-19 in household and community settings in the United Kingdom, January to March 2020.

BackgroundHouseholds appear to be the highest risk setting for COVID-19 transmission. Large household transmission studies in the early stages of the pandemic in Asia reported secondary attack rates ranging from 5 to 30%.AimWe aimed to investigate the transmission dynamics of COVID-19 in household and community settings in the UK.MethodsA prospective case-ascertained study design based on the World Health Organization FFX protocol was undertaken in the UK following the detection of the first case in late January 2020. Household contacts of cases were followed using enhanced surveillance forms to establish whether they developed symptoms of COVID-19, became confirmed cases and their outcomes. We estimated household secondary attack rates (SAR), serial intervals and individual and household basic reproduction numbers. The incubation period was estimated using known point source exposures that resulted in secondary cases.ResultsWe included 233 households with two or more people with 472 contacts. The overall household SAR was 37% (95% CI: 31-43%) with a mean serial interval of 4.67 days, an R0 of 1.85 and a household reproduction number of 2.33. SAR were lower in larger households and highest when the primary case was younger than 18 years. We estimated a mean incubation period of around 4.5 days.ConclusionsRates of COVID-19 household transmission were high in the UK for ages above and under 18 years, emphasising the need for preventative measures in this setting. This study highlights the importance of the FFX protocol in providing early insights on transmission dynamics.

Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of early COVID-19 cases, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical presentation, course of disease and health-care seeking behaviour of the first few hundred cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. METHODS: We implemented the World Health Organization's First Few X cases and contacts investigation protocol for COVID-19. Trained public health professionals collected information on 381 virologically confirmed COVID-19 cases from 31 January 2020 to 9 April 2020. We actively followed up cases to identify exposure to infection, symptoms and outcomes. We also collected limited data on 752 symptomatic people testing negative for COVID-19, as a control group for analyses of the sensitivity, specificity and predictive value of symptoms. FINDINGS: Approximately half of the COVID-19 cases were imported (196 cases; 51.4%), of whom the majority had recent travel to Italy (140 cases; 71.4%). Of the 94 (24.7%) secondary cases, almost all reported close contact with a confirmed case (93 cases; 98.9%), many through household contact (37 cases; 39.8%). By age, a lower proportion of children had COVID-19. Most cases presented with cough, fever and fatigue. The sensitivity and specificity of symptoms varied by age, with nonlinear relationships with age. Although the proportion of COVID-19 cases with fever increased with age, for those with other respiratory infections the occurrence of fever decreased with age. The occurrence of shortness of breath also increased with age in a greater proportion of COVID-19 cases. CONCLUSION: The study has provided useful evidence for generating case definitions and has informed modelling studies of the likely burden of COVID-19.

Re-emergence of enterovirus D68 in Europe after easing the COVID-19 lockdown, September 2021.

We report a rapid increase in enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) infections, with 139 cases reported from eight European countries between 31 July and 14 October 2021. This upsurge is in line with the seasonality of EV-D68 and was presumably stimulated by the widespread reopening after COVID-19 lockdown. Most cases were identified in September, but more are to be expected in the coming months. Reinforcement of clinical awareness, diagnostic capacities and surveillance of EV-D68 is urgently needed in Europe.

Inequalities in vaccination coverage and differences in follow-up procedures for asylum-seeking children arriving in Wales, UK.

The European Vaccine Action Plan 2015-2020 highlights the importance of reducing inequities and monitoring performance in underserved groups including migrants. However, there are limited data from European countries and policies for catch-up vary by country. Vaccination coverage in accompanied asylum-seeking children aged 5 to 16 years in two dispersal areas of Wales is presented alongside the coverage in the local population. Coverage data for asylum-seeking children were collated locally using asylum seeker nurse records whilst coverage in the local population was calculated using data from the National Community Child Health Database, a repository of data from all local Child Health Systems in Wales. The processes for following up outstanding vaccinations were also collected using a face-to-face questionnaire distributed to lead asylum seeker nurses in each area. As at the date of assessment, 45.6% (67/147) of children dispersed to area one had received all recommended immunisations compared with 62.2% (150/241) dispersed to area two, OR 0.51 (95% CI 0.33-0.79). At both sites the odds of being vaccinated against key vaccine preventable infections were around three times lower if you were an asylum-seeking child, compared with the local population. Similar procedures were in place for new asylum seekers in both dispersal areas. Area one had less resource to follow up missing immunisations, and children did not receive an initial health assessment unlike area two. Verbal history was accepted in area one but not in area two, despite area two having higher vaccine uptake.Conclusion: Asylum-seeking children have low rates of vaccine uptake compared with the general population, although uptake differs depending on dispersal area. Inequalities in vaccination services, such as resource and strategies to improve uptake, need to be considered.What is Known:• The European Vaccine Action Plan 2015-2020 highlights the importance of reducing inequities and monitoring performance in underserved groups including migrants.• Limited data from European countries suggest inequalities in uptake of immunisations in migrants compared with the local population. Policies for catching up immunisations vary by country.What is New:• Despite national policy for vaccination of migrants with missing or incomplete vaccination history in Wales, this work suggests vaccination coverage in asylum-seeking children is not equitable with the local population.• Vaccination coverage in asylum-seeking children dispersed to different areas of Wales also varies, and this may be associated with differences in local catch-up strategies and the ability to follow national policy. Resource and strategies to maintain engagement with health services play an important role in increasing vaccine uptake in underserved groups.

End of season influenza vaccine effectiveness in adults and children in the United Kingdom in 2017/18.

BackgroundIn the United Kingdom (UK), in recent influenza seasons, children are offered a quadrivalent live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV4), and eligible adults mainly trivalent inactivated vaccine (TIV).AimTo estimate the UK end-of-season 2017/18 adjusted vaccine effectiveness (aVE) and the seroprevalence in England of antibodies against influenza viruses cultured in eggs or tissue.MethodsThis observational study employed the test-negative case-control approach to estimate aVE in primary care. The population-based seroprevalence survey used residual age-stratified samples.ResultsInfluenza viruses A(H3N2) (particularly subgroup 3C.2a2) and B (mainly B/Yamagata/16/88-lineage, similar to the quadrivalent vaccine B-virus component but mismatched to TIV) dominated. All-age aVE was 15% (95% confidence interval (CI): -6.3 to 32) against all influenza; -16.4% (95% CI: -59.3 to 14.9) against A(H3N2); 24.7% (95% CI: 1.1 to 42.7) against B and 66.3% (95% CI: 33.4 to 82.9) against A(H1N1)pdm09. For 2-17 year olds, LAIV4 aVE was 26.9% (95% CI: -32.6 to 59.7) against all influenza; -75.5% (95% CI: -289.6 to 21) against A(H3N2); 60.8% (95% CI: 8.2 to 83.3) against B and 90.3% (95% CI: 16.4 to 98.9) against A(H1N1)pdm09. For ≥ 18 year olds, TIV aVE against influenza B was 1.9% (95% CI: -63.6 to 41.2). The 2017 seroprevalence of antibody recognising tissue-grown A(H3N2) virus was significantly lower than that recognising egg-grown virus in all groups except 15-24 year olds.ConclusionsOverall aVE was low driven by no effectiveness against A(H3N2) possibly related to vaccine virus egg-adaption and a new A(H3N2) subgroup emergence. The TIV was not effective against influenza B. LAIV4 against influenza B and A(H1N1)pdm09 was effective.

Prospective enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) surveillance from September 2015 to November 2018 indicates a current wave of activity in Wales.

Since 7 June 2018, an enterovirus D-68 (EV-D68) season (the third since 2015) is ongoing in Wales, with 114 confirmed cases thus far. Median age of the 220 cases since 2015 is 2.5 years (2.5 years in intensive care cases), 94% were hospitalised, 17% (n = 38) in intensive care. All had respiratory symptoms; bronchiolitis symptoms were reported in 60 cases, severe respiratory symptoms in 23 and acute flaccid myelitis in two cases.

Uptake and effectiveness of influenza vaccine in those aged 65 years and older in the United Kingdom, influenza seasons 2010/11 to 2016/17.

BackgroundIn 2016/17, seasonal influenza vaccine was less effective in those aged 65 years and older in the United Kingdom. We describe the uptake, influenza-associated mortality and adjusted vaccine effectiveness (aVE) in this age group over influenza seasons 2010/11-2016/17. Methods: Vaccine uptake in 2016/17 and five previous seasons were measured using a sentinel general practitioners cohort in England; the test-negative case-control design was used to estimate pooled aVE by subtype and age group against laboratory-confirmed influenza in primary care from 2010-2017. Results: Vaccine uptake was 64% in 65-69-year-olds, 74% in 70-74-year-olds and 80% in those aged 75 and older. Overall aVE was 32.5% (95% CI: 11.6 to 48.5); aVE by sub-type was 60.8% (95% CI: 33.9 to 76.7) and 50.0% (95% CI: 21.6 to 68.1) against influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 and influenza B, respectively, but only 5.6% (95% CI: - 39.2 to 35.9) against A(H3N2). Against all laboratory-confirmed influenza aVE was 45.2% (95% CI: 25.1 to 60.0) in 65-74 year olds; - 26.2% (95% CI: - 149.3 to 36.0) in 75-84 year olds and - 3.2% (95% CI: - 237.8 to 68.5) in those aged 85 years and older. Influenza-attributable mortality was highest in seasons dominated by A(H3N2). Conclusions: Vaccine uptake with non-adjuvanted, normal-dose vaccines remained high, with evidence of effectiveness against influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 and B, though poor against A(H3N2), particularly in those aged 75 years and older. Forthcoming availability of newly licensed vaccines with wider use of antivirals can potentially further improve prevention and control of influenza in this group.

Measles outbreak linked to European B3 outbreaks, Wales, United Kingdom, 2017.

The United Kingdom achieved interrupted endemic measles transmission for 36 months in 2016. Despite this, ongoing challenges from sporadic measles cases typically imported from abroad remain. We summarise a B3 measles genotype outbreak in south-east Wales occurring between May and September 2017, linked with other European outbreaks, and lessons learnt. Seventeen confirmed cases and one probable case occurred principally in education and healthcare-settings. Six confirmed cases attended healthcare settings when infectious, without being isolated.

End-of-season influenza vaccine effectiveness in adults and children, United Kingdom, 2016/17.

IntroductionThe United Kingdom is in the fourth season of introducing a universal childhood influenza vaccine programme. The 2016/17 season saw early influenza A(H3N2) virus circulation with care home outbreaks and increased excess mortality particularly in those 65 years or older. Virus characterisation data indicated emergence of genetic clusters within the A(H3N2) 3C.2a group which the 2016/17 vaccine strain belonged to. Methods: The test-negative case-control (TNCC) design was used to estimate vaccine effectiveness (VE) against laboratory confirmed influenza in primary care. Results: Adjusted end-of-season vaccine effectiveness (aVE) estimates were 39.8% (95% confidence interval (CI): 23.1 to 52.8) against all influenza and 40.6% (95% CI: 19.0 to 56.3) in 18-64-year-olds, but no significant aVE in ≥ 65-year-olds. aVE was 65.8% (95% CI: 30.3 to 83.2) for 2-17-year-olds receiving quadrivalent live attenuated influenza vaccine. Discussion: The findings continue to provide support for the ongoing roll-out of the paediatric vaccine programme, with a need for ongoing evaluation. The importance of effective interventions to protect the ≥ 65-year-olds remains.

Summer music and arts festivals as hot spots for measles transmission: experience from England and Wales, June to October 2016.

We report 52 cases of measles linked to music and arts festivals in England and Wales, between mid-June and mid-October 2016. Nearly half were aged 15 to 19 years. Several individuals who acquired measles at one festival subsequently attended another festival while infectious, resulting in multiple interlinked outbreaks. Transmission within festivals resulted in a geographical spread of cases nationally as well as internationally, which presents particular challenges for measles control.

Effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccine in preventing laboratory-confirmed influenza in primary care in the United Kingdom: 2015/16 mid-season results.

In 2015/16, the influenza season in the United Kingdom was dominated by influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 circulation. Virus characterisation indicated the emergence of genetic clusters, with the majority antigenically similar to the current influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 vaccine strain. Mid-season vaccine effectiveness (VE) estimates show an adjusted VE of 41.5% (95% confidence interval (CI): 3.0-64.7) against influenza-confirmed primary care consultations and of 49.1% (95% CI: 9.3-71.5) against influenza A(H1N1)pdm09. These estimates show levels of protection similar to the 2010/11 season, when this strain was first used in the seasonal vaccine.

Effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccine for adults and children in preventing laboratory-confirmed influenza in primary care in the United Kingdom: 2015/16 end-of-season results.

The United Kingdom (UK) is in the third season of introducing universal paediatric influenza vaccination with a quadrivalent live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV). The 2015/16 season in the UK was initially dominated by influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 and then influenza of B/Victoria lineage, not contained in that season's adult trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV). Overall adjusted end-of-season vaccine effectiveness (VE) was 52.4% (95% confidence interval (CI): 41.0-61.6) against influenza-confirmed primary care consultation, 54.5% (95% CI: 41.6-64.5) against influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 and 54.2% (95% CI: 33.1-68.6) against influenza B. In 2-17 year-olds, adjusted VE for LAIV was 57.6% (95% CI: 25.1 to 76.0) against any influenza, 81.4% (95% CI: 39.6-94.3) against influenza B and 41.5% (95% CI: -8.5 to 68.5) against influenza A(H1N1)pdm09. These estimates demonstrate moderate to good levels of protection, particularly against influenza B in children, but relatively less against influenza A(H1N1)pdm09. Despite lineage mismatch in the trivalent IIV, adults younger than 65 years were still protected against influenza B. These results provide reassurance for the UK to continue its influenza immunisation programme planned for 2016/17.

Effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccine in preventing laboratory-confirmed influenza in primary care in the United Kingdom: 2014/15 end of season results.

The 2014/15 influenza season in the United Kingdom (UK) was characterised by circulation of predominantly antigenically and genetically drifted influenza A(H3N2) and B viruses. A universal paediatric influenza vaccination programme using a quadrivalent live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) has recently been introduced in the UK. This study aims to measure the end-of-season influenza vaccine effectiveness (VE), including for LAIV, using the test negative case-control design. The overall adjusted VE against all influenza was 34.3% (95% confidence interval (CI) 17.8 to 47.5); for A(H3N2) 29.3% (95% CI: 8.6 to 45.3) and for B 46.3% (95% CI: 13.9 to 66.5). For those aged under 18 years, influenza A(H3N2) LAIV VE was 35% (95% CI: -29.9 to 67.5), whereas for influenza B the LAIV VE was 100% (95% CI:17.0 to 100.0). Although the VE against influenza A(H3N2) infection was low, there was still evidence of significant protection, together with moderate, significant protection against drifted circulating influenza B viruses. LAIV provided non-significant positive protection against influenza A, with significant protection against B. Further work to assess the population impact of the vaccine programme across the UK is underway.

Use of invitations and reminders are associated with higher levels of Herpes zoster (shingles) vaccination uptake. A cross-sectional survey of general practices in Wales, and ecological analysis of uptake data, 2022.

In 2013, shingles vaccination was introduced in Wales as a routine immunisation programme for older adults. Invitation for this vaccination has historically been recommended but not mandated by vaccination policy. We surveyed general practices to investigate if invitations and reminders are associated with higher uptake of shingles vaccine. Using data from general practices, we calculated practice-level shingles vaccine uptake between 01/07/2021 and 31/06/2022 for registered patients aged 70-84 years. We distributed an online survey via email to all general practices in Wales on their use of vaccination invitations and reminders, method of invitations, and characteristics of their vaccination delivery. We used linear regression to calculate coefficients and 95 %CI to measure associations between invitations and vaccine uptake, adjusting for key demographics, with a multi-level component to account for similarities between general practices within the same health board. Survey response rate was 37 % (143/384). Median vaccine uptake for responding general practices was 57 % (IQR 50-68 %) compared to 58 % (IQR 48-68 %) nationally. General practices inviting all eligible patients (n = 95) had a 9 % (95 %CI 6-13 %) higher vaccination uptake compared to those inviting none or some (n = 48, p < 0.001). Of practices sending invitations, those who reminded all patients (n = 42) had a 6 % (95 %CI 1-11 %, p = 0.02) higher uptake compared to those that reminded none (n = 30). Practice size was associated with higher uptake, with small practices (n = 11, p = 0.02) having coverage 9 % (95 %CI 2-16 %) higher compared to the reference population (medium-sized practices, n = 78). General practices inviting and reminding all eligible patients for shingles vaccination have a higher uptake compared to those inviting and reminding only some or none. From September 2023, shingles vaccination policy in Wales has been updated to explicitly mandate effective universal call and recall mechanisms in general practices.

End of 2022/23 Season Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness in Primary Care in Great Britain.

BACKGROUND: The 2022/23 influenza season in the United Kingdom saw the return of influenza to prepandemic levels following two seasons with low influenza activity. The early season was dominated by A(H3N2), with cocirculation of A(H1N1), reaching a peak late December 2022, while influenza B circulated at low levels during the latter part of the season. From September to March 2022/23, influenza vaccines were offered, free of charge, to all aged 2-13 (and 14-15 in Scotland and Wales), adults up to 49 years of age with clinical risk conditions and adults aged 50 and above across the mainland United Kingdom. METHODS: End-of-season adjusted vaccine effectiveness (VE) estimates against sentinel primary-care attendance for influenza-like illness, where influenza infection was laboratory confirmed, were calculated using the test negative design, adjusting for potential confounders. METHODS: Results In the mainland United Kingdom, end-of-season VE against all laboratory-confirmed influenza for all those > 65 years of age, most of whom received adjuvanted quadrivalent vaccines, was 30% (95% CI: -6% to 54%). VE for those aged 18-64, who largely received cell-based vaccines, was 47% (95% CI: 37%-56%). Overall VE for 2-17 year olds, predominantly receiving live attenuated vaccines, was 66% (95% CI: 53%-76%). CONCLUSION: The paper provides evidence of moderate influenza VE in 2022/23.

Interim 2023/2024 Season Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness in Primary and Secondary Care in the United Kingdom.

BACKGROUND: We report 2023/2024 season interim influenza vaccine effectiveness for three studies, namely, primary care in Great Britain, hospital settings in Scotland and hospital settings in England. METHODS: A test negative design was used to estimate vaccine effectiveness. RESULTS: Estimated vaccine effectiveness against all influenzas ranged from 63% (95% confidence interval 46 to 75%) to 65% (41 to 79%) among children aged 2-17, from 36% (20 to 49%) to 55% (43 to 65%) among adults 18-64 and from 40% (29 to 50%) to 55% (32 to 70%) among adults aged 65 and over. CONCLUSIONS: During a period of co-circulation of influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 and A(H3N2) in the United Kingdom, evidence for effectiveness of the influenza vaccine in both children and adults was found.

Minimising pain response during routine infant immunisation.

By the time a child in the UK reaches 13 months of age he or she should have received nine vaccinations. Therefore, it is important to look at interventions to decrease pain associated with receiving vaccines and to examine the evidence base for current clinical practice. This study (sample 72 babies randomly allocated to one or other treatment) was a small randomised, controlled trial to determine whether, when immunising babies aged two to six months, there is any difference in the perceived level of pain and distress experienced by babies when given two injections at the same time (simultaneous technique) as compared to giving them one injection after the other (sequential technique). Both practices are currently widespread. The study has shown that there is no difference in parents' perceptions of the distress experienced by babies receiving either simultaneous or sequential vaccinations. Preliminary findings of the observed measure of pain behaviour in babies report statistically significant differences in distress behaviours at four time points after vaccination between the sequential and simultaneous vaccinations, further research in a larger study is required to confirm these findings.

Determinants of Equity in Coverage of Measles-Containing Vaccines in Wales, UK, during the Elimination Era.

In the context of the WHO's measles and rubella elimination targets and European Immunization Agenda 2030, this large cross-sectional study aimed to identify inequalities in measles vaccination coverage in Wales, UK. The vaccination status of individuals aged 2 to 25 years of age, alive and resident in Wales as of 31 August 2021, was ascertained through linkage of the National Community Child Health Database and primary care data. A series of predictor variables were derived from five national datasets and all analysis was carried out in the Secure Anonymised Information Linkage Databank at Swansea University. In these 648,895 individuals, coverage of the first dose of measles-containing vaccine (due at 12-13 months of age) was 97.1%, and coverage of the second dose (due at 3 years and 4 months) in 4 to 25-year-olds was 93.8%. In multivariable analysis, excluding 0.7% with known refusal, the strongest association with being unvaccinated was birth order (families with six or more children) and being born outside of the UK. Living in a deprived area, being eligible for free school meals, a lower level of maternal education, and having a recorded language other than English or Welsh were also associated with lower coverage. Some of these factors may also be associated with refusal. This knowledge can be used to target future interventions and prioritise areas for catch up in a time of limited resource.

Addressing Determinants of Immunization Inequities Requires Objective Tools to Devise Local Solutions.

Universal immunization substantially reduces morbidity and mortality from vaccine-preventable diseases. In recent years, routine immunization coverage has varied considerably among countries across the WHO European Region, and among different populations and districts within countries. It has even declined in some countries. Sub-optimal immunization coverage contributes to accumulations of susceptible individuals and can lead to outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases. The European Immunization Agenda 2030 (EIA2030) seeks to build better health in the WHO European Region by ensuring equity in immunization and supporting immunization stakeholders in devising local solutions to local challenges. The factors that influence routine immunization uptake are context specific and multifactorial; addressing immunization inequities will require overcoming or removing barriers to vaccination for underserved individuals or populations. Local level immunization stakeholders must first identify the underlying causes of inequities, and based on this information, tailor resources, or service provision to the local context, as per the organization and characteristics of the health care system in their countries. To do this, in addition to using the tools already available to broadly identify immunization inequities at the national and regional levels, they will need new pragmatic guidance and tools to address the identified local challenges. It is time to develop the necessary guidance and tools and support immunization stakeholders at all levels, especially those at the subnational or local health centre levels, to make the vision of EIA2030 a reality.