Lactate regulates cell cycle by remodelling the anaphase promoting complex.

Lactate is abundant in rapidly dividing cells owing to the requirement for elevated glucose catabolism to support proliferation1-6. However, it is not known whether accumulated lactate affects the proliferative state. Here we use a systematic approach to determine lactate-dependent regulation of proteins across the human proteome. From these data, we identify a mechanism of cell cycle regulation whereby accumulated lactate remodels the anaphase promoting complex (APC/C). Remodelling of APC/C in this way is caused by direct inhibition of the SUMO protease SENP1 by lactate. We find that accumulated lactate binds and inhibits SENP1 by forming a complex with zinc in the SENP1 active site. SENP1 inhibition by lactate stabilizes SUMOylation of two residues on APC4, which drives UBE2C binding to APC/C. This direct regulation of APC/C by lactate stimulates timed degradation of cell cycle proteins, and efficient mitotic exit in proliferative human cells. This mechanism is initiated upon mitotic entry when lactate abundance reaches its apex. In this way, accumulation of lactate communicates the consequences of a nutrient-replete growth phase to stimulate timed opening of APC/C, cell division and proliferation. Conversely, persistent accumulation of lactate drives aberrant APC/C remodelling and can overcome anti-mitotic pharmacology via mitotic slippage. In sum, we define a biochemical mechanism through which lactate directly regulates protein function to control the cell cycle and proliferation.

Depletion of creatine phosphagen energetics with a covalent creatine kinase inhibitor.

Creatine kinases (CKs) provide local ATP production in periods of elevated energetic demand, such as during rapid anabolism and growth. Thus, creatine energetics has emerged as a major metabolic liability in many rapidly proliferating cancers. Whether CKs can be targeted therapeutically is unknown because no potent or selective CK inhibitors have been developed. Here we leverage an active site cysteine present in all CK isoforms to develop a selective covalent inhibitor of creatine phosphagen energetics, CKi. Using deep chemoproteomics, we discover that CKi selectively engages the active site cysteine of CKs in cells. A co-crystal structure of CKi with creatine kinase B indicates active site inhibition that prevents bidirectional phosphotransfer. In cells, CKi and its analogs rapidly and selectively deplete creatine phosphate, and drive toxicity selectively in CK-dependent acute myeloid leukemia. Finally, we use CKi to uncover an essential role for CKs in the regulation of proinflammatory cytokine production in macrophages.

MYPT1 O-GlcNAc modification regulates sphingosine-1-phosphate mediated contraction.

Many intracellular proteins are modified by N-acetylglucosamine, a post-translational modification termed O-GlcNAc. This modification is found on serine and threonine side chains and has the potential to regulate signaling pathways through interplay with phosphorylation. Here, we discover and characterize one such example. We find that O-GlcNAc levels control the sensitivity of fibroblasts to actin contraction induced by the signaling lipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), culminating in the phosphorylation of myosin light chain (MLC) and cellular contraction. Specifically, O-GlcNAc modification of the phosphatase subunit MYPT1 inhibits this pathway by blocking MYPT1 phosphorylation, maintaining its activity and causing the dephosphorylation of MLC. Finally, we demonstrate that O-GlcNAc levels alter the sensitivity of primary human dermal fibroblasts in a collagen-matrix model of wound healing. Our findings have important implications for the role of O-GlcNAc in fibroblast motility and differentiation, particularly in diabetic wound healing.

Exo-Enzymatic Addition of Diazirine-Modified Sialic Acid to Cell Surfaces Enables Photocrosslinking of Glycoproteins.

Glycan binding often mediates extracellular macromolecular recognition events. Accurate characterization of these binding interactions can be difficult because of dissociation and scrambling that occur during purification and analysis steps. Use of photocrosslinking methods has been pursued to covalently capture glycan-dependent interactions in situ; however, use of metabolic glycan engineering methods to incorporate photocrosslinking sugar analogs is limited to certain cell types. Here, we report an exo-enzymatic labeling method to add a diazirine-modified sialic acid (SiaDAz) to cell surface glycoconjugates. The method involves the chemoenzymatic synthesis of diazirine-modified CMP-sialic acid (CMP-SiaDAz), followed by sialyltransferase-catalyzed addition of SiaDAz to desialylated cell surfaces. Cell surface SiaDAzylation is compatible with multiple cell types and is facilitated by endogenous extracellular sialyltransferase activity present in Daudi B cells. This method for extracellular addition of α2-6-linked SiaDAz enables UV-induced crosslinking of CD22, demonstrating the utility for covalent capture of glycan-mediated binding interactions.

Surface plasmon resonance and cytotoxicity assays of drug efficacies predicted computationally to inhibit p53/MDM2 interaction.

Docking on the p53-binding site of murine double minute 2 (MDM2) by small molecules restores p53's tumor-suppressor function. We previously assessed 3244 FDA-approved drugs via "computational conformer selection" for inhibiting MDM2 and p53 interaction. Here, we developed a surface plasmon resonance method to experimentally confirm the inhibitory effects of the known MDM2 inhibitor, nutlin-3a, and two drug candidates predicted by our computational method. This p53/MDM2 interaction displayed a dosage-dependent weakening when MDM2 is pre-mixed with drug candidates. The inhibition efficiency order is nutlin-3a (IC50 = 97 nM) > bepridil (206 nM) > azelastine (307 nM). Furthermore, we verified their anti-proliferation effects on SJSA-1 (wild-type p53 and overexpressed MDM2), SW480 (mutated p53), and SaOs-2 (deleted p53) cancer cell lines. The inhibitory order towards SJSA-1 cell line is nutlin-3a (IC50 = 0.8 µM) > bepridil (23 µM) > azelastine (25 µM). Our experimental results are in line with the computational prediction, and the higher IC50 values from the cell-based assays are due to the requirement of higher drug concentrations to penetrate cell membranes. The anti-proliferation effects of bepridil and azelastine on the cell lines with mutated and deleted p53 implied some p53-independent anti-proliferation effects.

Optimization of Chemoenzymatic Mass Tagging by Strain-Promoted Cycloaddition (SPAAC) for the Determination of O-GlcNAc Stoichiometry by Western Blotting.

The dynamic modification of intracellular proteins by O-linked ß -N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAcylation) plays critical roles in many cellular processes. Although various methods have been developed for O-GlcNAc detection, there are few techniques for monitoring glycosylation stoichiometry and state (i.e., mono-, di-, etc., O-GlcNAcylated). Measuring the levels of O-GlcNAcylation on a given substrate protein is important for understanding the biology of this critical modification and for prioritizing substrates for functional studies. One powerful solution to this limitation involves the chemoenzymatic installation of polyethylene glycol polymers of defined molecular mass onto O-GlcNAcylated proteins. These "mass tags" produce shifts in protein migration during sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) that can be detected by Western blotting. Broad adoption of this method by the scientific community has been limited, however, by a lack of commercially available reagents and well-defined protein standards. Here, we develop a "click chemistry" approach to this method using entirely commercial reagents and confirm the accuracy of the approach using a semisynthetic O-GlcNAcylated protein. Our studies establish a new, expedited experimental workflow and standardized methods that can be readily utilized by non-experts to quantify the O-GlcNAc stoichiometry and state on endogenous proteins in any cell or tissue lysate.

The Metabolic Chemical Reporter 6-Azido-6-deoxy-glucose Further Reveals the Substrate Promiscuity of O-GlcNAc Transferase and Catalyzes the Discovery of Intracellular Protein Modification by O-Glucose.

Metabolic chemical reporters of glycosylation in combination with bioorthogonal reactions have been known for two decades and have been used by many different research laboratories for the identification and visualization of glycoconjugates. More recently, however, they have begun to see utility for the investigation of cellular metabolism and the tolerance of biosynthetic enzymes and glycosyltransferases to different sugars. Here, we take this concept one step further by using the metabolic chemical reporter 6-azido-6-deoxy-glucose (6AzGlc). We show that treatment of mammalian cells with the per- O-acetylated version of 6AzGlc results in robust labeling of a variety of proteins. Notably, the pattern of this labeling was consistent with O-GlcNAc modifications, suggesting that the enzyme O-GlcNAc transferase is quite promiscuous for its donor sugar substrates. To confirm this possibility, we show that 6AzGlc-treatment results in the labeling of known O-GlcNAcylated proteins, that the UDP-6AzGlc donor sugar is indeed produced in living cells, and that recombinant OGT will accept UDP-6AzGlc as a substrate in vitro. Finally, we use proteomics to first identify several bona fide 6AzGlc-modifications in mammalian cells and then an endogenous O-glucose modification on host cell factor. These results support the conclusion that OGT can endogenously modify proteins with both N-acetyl-glucosamine and glucose, raising the possibility that intracellular O-glucose modification may be a widespread modification under certain conditions or in particular tissues.

Azide- and Alkyne-Bearing Metabolic Chemical Reporters of Glycosylation Show Structure-Dependent Feedback Inhibition of the Hexosamine Biosynthetic Pathway.

Metabolic chemical reporters (MCRs) of protein glycosylation are analogues of natural monosaccharides that bear reactive groups, like azides and alkynes. When they are added to living cells and organisms, these small molecules are biosynthetically transformed into nucleotide donor sugars and then used by glycosyltransferases to modify proteins. Subsequent installation of tags by bioorthogonal chemistries can then enable the visualization and enrichment of these glycoproteins. Although this two-step procedure is powerful, the use of MCRs has the potential to change the endogenous production of the natural repertoire of donor sugars. A major route for the generation of these glycosyltransferase substrates is the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP), which results in uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc). Interestingly, the rate-determining enzyme of the HBP, glutamine fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase (GFAT), is feedback inhibited by UDP-GlcNAc. This raises the possibility that a build-up of UDP-MCRs would block the biosynthesis of UDP-GlcNAc, resulting in off target effects. Here, we directly test this possibility with recombinant human GFAT and a small panel of synthetic UDP-MCRs. We find that MCRs with larger substitutions at the N-acetyl position do not inhibit GFAT, whereas those with modifications of the 2- or 6-hydroxy group do. These results further illuminate the considerations that should be applied to the use of MCRs.

The New Chemical Reporter 6-Alkynyl-6-deoxy-GlcNAc Reveals O-GlcNAc Modification of the Apoptotic Caspases That Can Block the Cleavage/Activation of Caspase-8.

O-GlcNAc modification (O-GlcNAcylation) is required for survival in mammalian cells. Genetic and biochemical experiments have found that increased modification inhibits apoptosis in tissues and cell culture and that lowering O-GlcNAcylation induces cell death. However, the molecular mechanisms by which O-GlcNAcylation might inhibit apoptosis are still being elucidated. Here, we first synthesize a new metabolic chemical reporter, 6-Alkynyl-6-deoxy-GlcNAc (6AlkGlcNAc), for the identification of O-GlcNAc-modified proteins. Subsequent characterization of 6AlkGlcNAc shows that this probe is selectively incorporated into O-GlcNAcylated proteins over cell-surface glycoproteins. Using this probe, we discover that the apoptotic caspases are O-GlcNAcylated, which we confirmed using other techniques, raising the possibility that the modification affects their biochemistry. We then demonstrate that changes in the global levels of O-GlcNAcylation result in a converse change in the kinetics of caspase-8 activation during apoptosis. Finally, we show that caspase-8 is modified at residues that can block its cleavage/activation. Our results provide the first evidence that the caspases may be directly affected by O-GlcNAcylation as a potential antiapoptotic mechanism.

An improved Bathocuproine assay for accurate valence identification and quantification of copper bound by biomolecules.

Copper is an essential metal in all organisms. Reliably quantifying and identifying the copper content and oxidation state is crucial, since the information is essential to understanding protein structure and function. Chromophoric ligands, such as Bathocuproine (BC) and its water-soluble analog, Bathocuproinedisulfonic acid (BCS), preferentially bind Cu(I) over Cu(II), and therefore have been widely used as optical probes to determine the oxidation state of copper bound by biomolecules. However, the BCS assay is commonly misused, leading to erroneous conclusions regarding the role of copper in biological processes. By measuring the redox potential of Cu(II)-BCS2 and conducting UV-vis absorption measurements in the presence of oxidizable amino acids, the thermodynamic origin of the potential artifacts becomes evident. The BCS assay was improved by introducing a strong Cu(II) chelator EDTA prior to the addition of BCS to prevent interference that might arise from Cu(II) present in the sample. The strong Cu(II) chelator rids of all the potential errors inherent in the conventional BCS assay. Applications of the improved assay to peptides and protein containing oxidizable amino acid residues confirm that free Cu(II) no longer leads to artifacts, thereby resolving issues related to this persistently misused colorimetric assay of Cu(I) in biological systems.

Ca(2+) Interacts with Glu-22 of Aß(1-42) and Phospholipid Bilayers to Accelerate the Aß(1-42) Aggregation Below the Critical Micelle Concentration.

The amyloid cascade hypothesis links the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide aggregation to neuronal cell damage and ultimately the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although Aß aggregation has been known to accelerate at cell membranes, the exact mechanism of Aß peptide deposition and the involvement of extracellular species are still largely unclear. Using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), we demonstrate that Ca(2+) ions, in conjunction with lipid bilayer, lower the threshold concentration for Aß aggregation (>a few micromolar in vitro) to physiological levels (low nanomolar). Circular dichroism spectroscopy reveals that Ca(2+) ions and the lipid bilayer concertedly accelerate the conformational change or misfolding of Aß peptides. Molecular dynamics calculation indicates that Ca(2+) is sandwiched between Glu-22 of Aß and the lipid phosphate group. SPR experiments conducted using an E22G mutant confirmed the strong interaction among Ca(2+), Aß(1-42), and the phospholipid bilayer. With the C- and N-termini of the Aß dimer fully exposed for the attachment of additional Aß molecules, fibrils formed with the Ca(2+)-anchored Aß nuclei appear to interact with lipid bilayers differently from those preformed in solution. Thus, similar to the role of Ca(2+) in enriching islet amyloid polypeptides in the pancreas of diabetic patients ( Biophys. J. 2013 , 104 , 173 - 184 ) and the "Ca(2+) bridge" in mediating membrane interaction with α-synuclein in the Parkinson's disease ( Biochemistry , 2006 , 45 , 10947 - 10956 ), the influence of Ca(2+) on the Aß adsorption at cell membranes, which leads to neuronal membrane damage in AD, cannot be overlooked.

Dyes and Redox Couples with Matched Energy Levels: Elimination of the Dye-Regeneration Energy Loss in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.

In dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), a significant dye-regeneration force (ΔG(reg)(0)≥0.5 eV) is usually required for effective dye regeneration, which results in a major energy loss and limits the energy-conversion efficiency of state-of-art DSSCs. We demonstrate that when dye molecules and redox couples that possess similar conjugated ligands are used, efficient dye regeneration occurs with zero or close-to-zero driving force. By using Ru(dcbpy)(bpy)2(2+) as the dye and Ru(bpy)2(MeIm)2(3+//2+) as the redox couple, a short-circuit current (J(sc)) of 4 mA cm(-2) and an open-circuit voltage (V(oc)) of 0.9 V were obtained with a ΔG(reg)(0) of 0.07 eV. The same was observed for the N3 dye and Ru(bpy)2(SCN)2(1+/0) (ΔG(reg)(0)=0.0 eV), which produced an J(sc) of 2.5 mA cm(-2) and V(oc) of 0.6 V. Charge recombination occurs at pinholes, limiting the performance of the cells. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates that high V(oc) values can be attained by significantly curtailing the dye-regeneration force.

pH-dependent coordination of Pb2+ to metallothionein2: structures and insight into lead detoxification.

Lead is a toxic heavy metal whose detoxification in organisms is mainly carried out by its coordination with some metalloproteins such as metallothioneins (MTs). Two Pb-MT complexes, named as Pb7-MT2(I) and Pb7-MT2(II), form under neutral and weakly acidic conditions, respectively. However, the structures of the two complexes, which are crucial for a better understanding of the detoxification mechanism of Pb-MTs, have not been clearly elucidated. In this Work, coordination of Pb(2+) with rabbit liver apo-MT2, as well as with the two individual domains (apo-αMT2 and apo-ßMT2) at different pH, were studied by combined spectroscopic (UV-visible, circular dichroism, and NMR) and computational methods. The results showed that in Pb7-MT2(I) the Pb(2+) coordination is in the trigonal pyramidal Pb-S3 mode, whereas the Pb7-MT2(II) complex contains mixed trigonal pyramidal Pb-S3, distorted trigonal pyramidal Pb-S2O1, and distorted quadrilateral pyramidal Pb-S3O1 modes. The O-donor ligand in Pb7-MT2(II) was identified as the carboxyl groups of the aspartic acid residues at positions 2 and 56. Our studies also revealed that Pb7-MT2(II) has a greater acid tolerance and coordination stability than Pb7-MT2(I), thereby retaining the Pb(2+) coordination at acidic pH. The higher flexibility of Pb7-MT2(II) renders it more accessible to lysosomal proteolysis than Pb7-MT2(I). Similar spectral features were observed in the coordination of Pb(2+) by human apo-MT2, suggesting a commonality among mammalian MT2s in the Pb(2+) coordination chemistry.

A comprehensive landscape of the zinc-regulated human proteome.

Zinc is an essential micronutrient that regulates a wide range of physiological processes, principally through Zn 2+ binding to protein cysteine residues. Despite being critical for modulation of protein function, for the vast majority of the human proteome the cysteine sites subject to regulation by Zn 2+ binding remain undefined. Here we develop ZnCPT, a comprehensive and quantitative mapping of the zinc-regulated cysteine proteome. We define 4807 zinc-regulated protein cysteines, uncovering protein families across major domains of biology that are subject to either constitutive or inducible modification by zinc. ZnCPT enables systematic discovery of zinc-regulated structural, enzymatic, and allosteric functional domains. On this basis, we identify 52 cancer genetic dependencies subject to zinc regulation, and nominate malignancies sensitive to zinc-induced cytotoxicity. In doing so, we discover a mechanism of zinc regulation over Glutathione Reductase (GSR) that drives cell death in GSR-dependent lung cancers. We provide ZnCPT as a resource for understanding mechanisms of zinc regulation over protein function.

Translation of Microbiota Short-Chain Fatty Acid Mechanisms Affords Anti-infective Acyl-Salicylic Acid Derivatives.

The discovery of specific microbiota metabolite mechanisms has begun to motivate new therapeutic approaches. Inspired by our mechanistic studies of microbiota-derived short chain fatty acid (SCFA) acylation of bacterial virulence factors, here we explored covalent protein acylation therapeutics as potential anti-infectives. For these studies, we focused on acetyl-salicylic acid, aspirin, and discovered that SCFA analogues such as butyryl-salicylic acid showed significantly improved anti-infective activity against Salmonella Typhimurium. Structure-activity studies showed that the ester functionality of butyryl-salicylic acid was crucial and associated with the acylation of key bacterial virulence factors and metabolic enzymes, which are important for Salmonella infection of host cells and bacterial growth. Beyond the Gram-negative bacterial pathogens, butyryl-salicylic acid also showed better antibacterial activity compared to aspirin against Clostridioides difficile, a clinically challenging Gram-positive bacterial pathogen. Notably, coadministration of butyryl-salicylic acid, but not aspirin, effectively attenuated Salmonella pathogenesis in vivo. This study highlights how the analysis of microbiota metabolite mechanisms may inspire the repurposing and development of new anti-infective agents.

O-Acetylated Chemical Reporters of Glycosylation Can Display Metabolism-Dependent Background Labeling of Proteins but Are Generally Reliable Tools for the Identification of Glycoproteins.

Monosaccharide analogs bearing bioorthogonal functionalities, or metabolic chemical reporters (MCRs) of glycosylation, have been used for approximately two decades for the visualization and identification of different glycoproteins. More recently, proteomics analyses have shown that per-O-acetylated MCRs can directly and chemically react with cysteine residues in lysates and potentially cells, drawing into question the physiological relevance of the labeling. Here, we report robust metabolism-dependent labeling by Ac42AzMan but not the structurally similar Ac44AzGal. However, the levels of background chemical-labeling of cell lysates by both reporters are low and identical. We then characterized Ac42AzMan labeling and found that the vast majority of the labeling occurs on intracellular proteins but that this MCR is not converted to previously characterized reporters of intracellular O-GlcNAc modification. Additionally, we used isotope targeted glycoproteomics (IsoTaG) proteomics to show that essentially all of the Ac42AzMan labeling is on cysteine residues. Given the implications this result has for the identification of intracellular O-GlcNAc modifications using MCRs, we then performed a meta-analysis of the potential O-GlcNAcylated proteins identified by different techniques. We found that many of the proteins identified by MCRs have also been found by other methods. Finally, we randomly selected four proteins that had only been identified as O-GlcNAcylated by MCRs and showed that half of them were indeed modified. Together, these data indicate that the selective metabolism of certain MCRs is responsible for S-glycosylation of proteins in the cytosol and nucleus. However, these results also show that MCRs are still good tools for unbiased identification of glycosylated proteins, as long as complementary methods are employed for confirmation.

Identifying potentially O-GlcNAcylated proteins using metabolic labeling, bioorthogonal enrichment, and Western blotting.

O-GlcNAcylation is a widespread posttranslational modification of intracellular proteins. Phenotypic and genetic experiments have established key roles for O-GlcNAc in development, mammalian cell survival, and several human diseases. However, the underlying mechanisms by which this modification alters biological pathways are still being discovered. An important part of this discovery process is the discovery of O-GlcNAcylated proteins, where chemical approaches have been particularly powerful. Here we describe how to combine one of these approaches, metabolic chemical reporters (MCRs), with bioorthogonal chemistry and Western blotting to identify potentially O-GlcNAcylated proteins.

Bioorthogonal Profiling of a Cancer Cell Proteome Identifies a Large Set of 3-Bromopyruvate Targets beyond Glycolysis.

3-Bromopyruvate (3BP) is a potential anticancer agent viewed as a glycolytic inhibitor that preferentially kills cancer cells through inhibition of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), resulting in severe energy depletion. We previously identified four cysteine residues in GAPDH that are alkylated by 3BP, resulting in its inactivation. However, we also showed that addition of excess pyruvate, the final product of glycolysis, was unable to rescue cells from 3BP treatment. This result indicates that GAPDH may not be the only relevant target and is consistent with the chemical reactivity of 3BP that should result in the modification of cysteine residues in many different proteins. To directly test this hypothesis, we first synthesized a probe of 3BP activity bearing an alkyne functionality, termed AO3BP, and then demonstrated that this probe could modify a variety of proteins in living cells. Subsequent competition of AO3BP labeling with pretreatment by 3BP identified 62 statistically significant proteins of various functions as targets of 3BP, confirming that 3BP labeling is indeed widespread. We conclude that 3BP's cytotoxic impact on cancer cells does not only result from selective inhibition of glycolysis but rather from a more widespread effect on cellular proteins that could be driven by the pharmacokinetics of the 3BP. These pleiotropic consequences should be considered when thinking about the potential toxicity of this highly reactive compound.

Direct evidence for GABAergic activity of Withania somnifera on mammalian ionotropic GABAA and GABAρ receptors.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Withania somnifera (WS) has been traditionally used in Ayurvedic medicine as a remedy for debility, stress, nervous exhaustion, insomnia, loss of memory, and to enhance cognitive function. This study provides an empirical evidence to support the traditional use of WS to aid in mental process engaging GABAergic signaling. AIM OF THE STUDY: We evaluated the effect of aqueous WS root extract (aqWS), and its two main components, withaferin A and withanolide A, on the main inhibitory receptors in the central nervous system: ionotropic GABAA receptors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The pharmacological activity of aqWS, withaferin A and withanolide A, was tested on native rat brain GABAA channels microtransplanted into Xenopus oocytes and GABAρ1 receptors heterologously expressed in oocytes. The GABAergic activity of aqWS compounds was evaluated by the two-electrode voltage-clamp method and the fingerprint of the extract was done by LC-MS. RESULTS: Concentration-dependent inward ion currents were elicited by aqWS in microtransplanted oocytes with an EC50 equivalent to 4.7 mg/mL and a Hill coefficient (nH) of 1.6. The GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline blocked these currents. Our results show that aqWS activated inotropic GABAA channels but with lower efficacy compared to the endogenous agonist GABA. We also demonstrate for first time that aqWS is a potent agonist of GABAρ1 receptors. GABAρ1 receptors were 27 fold more sensitive to aqWS than GABAA receptors. Furthermore, aqWS activated GABAρ1 receptors eliciting maximum currents that were no significantly different to those produced by GABA (paired t-test; p=0.533). The differential activity on GABAA and GABA ρ1 receptors and the reported lack of significant GABA presence in WS root extract indicates that the GABAergic activity of aqWS is not mediated by GABA. WS main active components, witaferin A and withanolide A, were tested to determine if they were responsible for the activation of the GABA receptors. Neither compound activated GABAA nor GABAρ1 receptors, suggesting that other constituent/s in WS are responsible for GABAA receptor mediated responses. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide evidence indicating that key constituents in WS may have an important role in the development of pharmacological treatments for neurological disorders associated with GABAergic signaling dysfunction such as general anxiety disorders, sleep disturbances, muscle spasms, and seizures. In addition, the differential activation of GABA receptor subtypes elucidates a potential mechanism by which WS accomplishes its reported adaptogenic properties.