Effect of reduced-calcium and high-calcium cheddar cheese consumption on the excretion of faecal fat: a 2-week cross-over dietary intervention study.

PURPOSE: Studies show that dairy fat consumed in the form of cheese reduce LDL-cholesterol concentration (LDL-c) compared to butter and mechanistic suggestions include the calcium content of cheese leading to enhanced faecal fat excretion. The aim of this study was to test the effect of varying the calcium content within a cheese, on faecal fat excretion as a primary outcome, and blood lipid markers, fasting glucose and calcium excretion as secondary outcomes. METHODS: 7 healthy males (BMI 18-25) participated in this randomized, cross-over control intervention, of 3 × 2 week periods. Diets contained 240 g/day cheese; a High Calcium Cheese (HCC) diet, a Reduced Calcium Cheese (RCC) diet, and a control arm: Reduced Calcium Cheese + CaCO3 Supplement (RCC + Supp) diet. Diets differed in calcium content and form but were otherwise controlled for energy and key macronutrients. Blood and 5-day faecal samples were collected. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in faecal fat excretion (g/day) between the diets (P = 0.066). Percent fat of faecel excretion was higher after RCC + Supp (P = 0.016). None of the individual fatty acids were different. Fasting LDL-c was significantly lower following the HCC diet vs. the other arms (P = 0.002). Faecal Ca was different across all diets (P = 0.001), lowest after RCC, and greatest after RCC + Supp. No differences were observed for fasting blood parameters or changes in anthropometry. CONCLUSION: Varying the calcium content within a cheese matrix significantly affected fasting LDL-c values. Results did not support higher faecal fat excretion as an underlying mechanism, but the high attrition rate was a limitation. Trial registerer Trial Registered at ISRCTN.org, registration number ISRCTN11663659 on 12.07.2022. Retrospectively registered.

The effects of saturated fat intake from dairy on CVD markers: the role of food matrices.

CVD is the leading cause of death worldwide, and is commonly associated with modifiable risk factors. Most studies to date examining link between food intake and risk of CVD, have focused on modulation of plasma cholesterol concentrations (total cholesterol (TC), LDL-C). However, recent studies suggest LDL particle size is a more sensitive risk marker for CVD with smaller, dense LDL particles reported as more atherogenic than larger, more buoyant LDL. Although dietary guidelines recommend SFA intake of < 10 % of total energy, this does not consider food source, with recent evidence suggesting differing, sometimes beneficial, lipid responses following consumption of SFA from dairy compared to other food sources. This may be from differences in the physical food matrices, the nutrient content of the foods, and/or how these components interact with each other, described as a 'dairy matrix effect'. Dietary fat not only raises LDL-C, but also HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), associated with reduced CVD risk. HDL particles are complex emulsions of lipids, proteins and microRNAs that exhibit atheroprotective properties. In addition, HDL particles exhibit a very heterogeneous proteomic composition, dependent on a person's disease state - with a more pro-inflammatory proteome evident in patients with established CVD. This review will discuss the evidence to date on the importance of the food matrix in modulating response to dietary SFA and impact on CVD risk factors. A focus on potential biomarker properties of lipoprotein particles beyond cholesterol and current use of such biomarkers in human nutrition research will be considered.

An examination of the impact of unmelted, melted, and deconstructed cheese on lipid metabolism: a 6-week randomised trial.

Background: Evidence suggests cheese has a favourable or neutral effect on cardiometabolic health, compared to butter. To date, studies have only considered the cheese matrix in its unmelted form, while the effect of melted cheese remains unknown. Objective: To test the effect of 6-week daily consumption of ∼40 g dairy fat, eaten in either as unmelted cheese, melted cheese, or in a fully deconstructed form, on markers of metabolic health in overweight adults aged ≥50 years of age. Design: A 6-week randomised parallel intervention, where 162 participants (43.3% male) received ∼40 g of dairy fat per day, in 1 of 3 treatments: (A) 120 g full-fat Irish grass-fed cheddar cheese, eaten in unmelted form (n 58); (B) 120 g full-fat Irish grass-fed cheddar cheese eaten in melted form (n 53); or (C) the equivalent components; butter (49 g), calcium caseinate powder (30 g), and Ca supplement (CaCO3; 500 mg) (n 51). Results: There was no difference in weight, fasting glucose, or insulin between the groups post-intervention. Melted cheese, compared to unmelted cheese, increased total cholesterol (0.23 ± 0.79 mmol L-1vs. 0.02 ± 0.67 mmol L-1, P = 0.008) and triglyceride concentrations (0.17 ± 0.39 mmol L-1vs. 0.00 ± 0.42 mmol L-1, P = 0.016). Melted cheese increased total cholesterol concentrations by 0.20 ± 0.15 mmol L-1 and triglyceride concentrations by 0.17 ± 0.08 mmol L-1 compared to unmelted cheese. No significant differences were observed between the cheese forms for change in HDL, LDL or VLDL cholesterol. Conclusion: Compared to unmelted cheese, melted cheese was found to increase total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations in middle-aged, overweight adults with no effect on weight or glycaemic control.

Role of food matrix in modulating dairy fat induced changes in lipoprotein particle size distribution in a human intervention.

BACKGROUND: Intake of dairy fat within the matrix of cheese lowered circulating LDL cholesterol concentration to a greater extent than the same components consumed separately as butter, protein, and calcium. However, circulating LDL cholesterol is not indicative of concentration or size of LDL particles (LDL-P), which are recognized as more sensitive risk markers of CVD. OBJECTIVES: This was an exploratory analysis to investigate the role of the food matrix on lipoprotein particle size distribution, after a dairy fat intervention, in overweight adults aged ≥50 y. METHODS: Lipoprotein particle size distribution was measured in fasting EDTA blood samples taken at week 0 (baseline) and at week 6, using NMR. In total, 127 participants (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2, aged ≥50 y) received ∼42 g dairy fat in 1 of 4 treatments: group A, 120 g full-fat cheddar cheese (FFCC); group B, reduced-fat cheese plus butter (RFC+B); group C, butter, calcium caseinate powder, and calcium supplement (CaCO3) (BCC); or group D, 120 g FFCC (as per group A) but after a 6-wk washout period during which they excluded cheese before intervention. RESULTS: Total VLDL and chylomicron particles (VLDL/CM-P) decreased after intervention. There was a strong correlation between reduced VLDL/CM-P and a reduction in small proatherogenic VLDL-P (r = 0.888, P < 0.001). Reductions in total LDL-P were associated with a reduction in small LDL-P and, to a lesser extent, with large LDL-P. There was a significant main effect of treatment for change in intermediate-density lipoprotein particles (IDL-P) after the intervention (P = 0.023) between groups B and D (-46.86 ± 30.38 and 40.69 ± 32.72 nmol/L, respectively). HDL particle (HDL-P) parameters (diameter, concentration, or size distribution) were not affected by diet. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that reductions in LDL cholesterol observed with dairy fat consumption are driven by reductions in LDL-P concentration. A trend toward a less atherogenic profile was observed, but there was no clear effect of the individual food matrices. This trial was registered at ISRCTN as ISRCTN86731958.