VirtoScan-on-Rails - an automated 3D imaging system for fast post-mortem whole-body surface documentation at autopsy tables.

Two-dimensional photographic documentation is a substantial part of post-mortem examinations for legal investigations. Additional three-dimensional surface documentation has been shown to assist in the visualization of findings and contribute to the reconstruction of the sequence of events. However, 2D photo documentation and, especially, 3D surface documentation, are time-consuming procedures that require specially trained personnel. In this study a 3D imaging system, called VirtoScan-on-Rails, was developed to automate and facilitate 3D surface documentation for photo documentation in autopsy suites. The imaging system was built to quickly acquire photogrammetric image sets of whole bodies during different stages of external and internal examinations. VirtoScan-on-Rails was set up in the autopsy suite of the Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Zurich (Zurich, Switzerland). The imaging system is based on a movable frame that carries a multi-camera array. Data quality and the applicability of the system were analyzed and evaluated within two test series. Up to 200 overlapping photographic images were acquired at consecutive image-capturing positions over a distance of approximately 2000 mm. The image-capturing process took 1 min and 23 s to acquire a set of 200 images for one side of the body. During test series one and two, 53 photogrammetric image sets taken from 31 forensic cases were successfully reconstructed. VirtoScan-on-Rails is an automated, fast and easy-to-use 3D imaging setup for autopsy suits. It facilitates documenting bodies during different stages of forensic examinations and allows standardizing the procedure of photo documentation.

Automatic entry point planning for robotic post-mortem CT-based needle placement.

INTRODUCTION: Post-mortem computed tomography guided placement of co-axial introducer needles allows for the extraction of tissue and liquid samples for histological and toxicological analyses. Automation of this process can increase the accuracy and speed of the needle placement, thereby making it more feasible for routine examinations. To speed up the planning process and increase safety, we developed an algorithm that calculates an optimal entry point and end-effector orientation for a given target point, while taking constraints such as accessibility or bone collisions into account. TECHNIQUE: The algorithm identifies the best entry point for needle trajectories in three steps. First, the source CT data is prepared and bone as well as surface data are extracted and optimized. All vertices of the generated surface polygon are considered to be potential entry points. Second, all surface points are tested for validity within the defined hard constraints (reachability, bone collision as well as collision with other needles) and removed if invalid. All remaining vertices are reachable entry points and are rated with respect to needle insertion angle. Third, the vertex with the highest rating is selected as the final entry point, and the best end-effector rotation is calculated to avoid collisions with the body and already set needles. DISCUSSION: In most cases, the algorithm is sufficiently fast with approximately 5-6 s per entry point. This is the case if there is no collision between the end-effector and the body. If the end-effector has to be rotated to avoid collision, calculation times can increase up to 24 s due to the inefficient collision detection used here. In conclusion, the algorithm allows for fast and facilitated trajectory planning in forensic imaging.

Virtobot 2.0: the future of automated surface documentation and CT-guided needle placement in forensic medicine.

In this paper we present the second prototype of a robotic system to be used in forensic medicine. The system is capable of performing automated surface documentation using photogrammetry, optical surface scanning and image-guided, post-mortem needle placement for tissue sampling, liquid sampling, or the placement of guide wires. The upgraded system includes workflow optimizations, an automatic tool-change mechanism, a new software module for trajectory planning and a fully automatic computed tomography-data-set registration algorithm. We tested the placement accuracy of the system by using a needle phantom with radiopaque markers as targets. The system is routinely used for surface documentation and resulted in 24 surface documentations over the course of 11 months. We performed accuracy tests for needle placement using a biopsy phantom, and the Virtobot placed introducer needles with an accuracy of 1.4 mm (±0.9 mm). The second prototype of the Virtobot system is an upgrade of the first prototype but mainly focuses on streamlining the workflow and increasing the level of automation and also has an easier user interface. These upgrades make the Virtobot a potentially valuable tool for case documentation in a scalpel-free setting that uses purely imaging techniques and minimally invasive procedures and is the next step toward the future of virtual autopsy.

Technical note: Semiautomated targeted postmortem computed tomography angiography of the pulmonary arteries using a robotic system.

INTRODUCTION: To better depict vascular lesions on postmortem computed tomography (PMCT), whole-body postmortem computed tomography angiography (PMCTA) can be used in forensic diagnostics. Targeted angiography, in which only a specific vessel is filled with contrast agent, might help in cases of traumatic changes that render whole-body PMCTA impossible. Moreover, in targeted PMCTA, the contrast agent does not affect the haptics of any other organs. In this article, we describe automated, CT-guided targeted angiography of the pulmonary artery (PA) using the Virtobot system. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Our study group consisted of 8 deceased persons (3 males, 5 females). We first performed an unenhanced CT scan and used the data obtained to plan the needle trajectories with the Virtobot planning software. Then, the needle was fully automatically placed by the Virtobot system. Subsequently, 50 ml of contrast agent was injected manually, and the CT scan was repeated (targeted PMCTA). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: We tested a new method for performing semiautomated targeted postmortem angiography of the PAs using a robotic needle placement system (Virtobot). In 6 out of our 8 cases, the injection of contrast agent in the PA was successful. In five of the six successful cases, there was reflux of contrast agent to some extent, but the reflux did not affect the readout. In general, the procedure was easy to plan based on a PMCT data set, and the pulmonary trunk was easy to reach with a robotic needle placement system.

High speed optical quantum random number generation.

We present a fully integrated, ready-for-use quantum random number generator (QRNG) whose stochastic model is based on the randomness of detecting single photons in attenuated light. We show that often annoying deadtime effects associated with photomultiplier tubes (PMT) can be utilized to avoid postprocessing for bias or correlations. The random numbers directly delivered to a PC, generated at a rate of up to 50 Mbit/s, clearly pass all tests relevant for (physical) random number generators.

Robot-assisted biopsy using computed tomography-guidance: initial results from in vitro tests.

PURPOSE: We sought to develop a robotic system for computed tomography (CT)-guided biopsy to validate the feasibility, accuracy, and efficacy of the system using phantom tests. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ten peas (mean diameter 9.9+/-0.4 mm) embedded within a gel phantom were selected for biopsy. Once the best access was defined on CT images, the position of the phantom was recorded by an optical tracking system. Positional data about the phantom and the corresponding CT image was transferred to the robot planning system (Linux-based industrial PC equipped with video capture card). Once the appropriate position, angulation, and pitch were calculated, the robotic arm moved automatically with 7 degrees-of-freedom to the planned insertion path, aiming the needle-trajectory at the center of the target. Then, the biopsy was performed manually using a coaxial technique. The length of all harvested specimens was measured and short cut pieces of a guidewire were pushed into the target to evaluate the deviation of the actual needle track from the target. RESULTS: In all targets, biopsy specimens (mean length 5.6+/-1.4 mm) were harvested with only 1 needle pass required. The mean deviation of the needle tip from the center of the target in the x and z axes was 1.2+/-0.9 mm and 0.6+/-0.4 mm, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Robotic-assisted biopsies in vitro, using CT guidance, were feasible and provided high accuracy.

CT-guided, minimally invasive, postmortem needle biopsy using the B-Rob II needle-positioning robot.

CT-guided, minimally invasive needle biopsy techniques can be used to retrieve tissue or body fluid samples for histologic tissue diagnoses in forensic investigations. The purpose of this study was an evaluation of CT-guided needle-positioning robot B-Rob II. To operate under CT guidance, we adopted the B-Rob II robotic needle placement system and its workflow. The accuracy and speed of the procedure were tested on a gelatin phantom in a series of 21 biopsies. We achieved an average needle placement accuracy of 1.8 mm (±1.1 mm) using robotic assistance. The procedure required an average of 2 min 21 s. The needle placement accuracy for minimally invasive needle biopsies using the B-Rob II biopsy robot is sufficiently accurate and fast for forensic postmortem examinations of focal organ changes. Further tests will be performed to test the feasibility of the robot for performing biopsies of focal organ changes in human bodies.

Matrix-valued Boltzmann equation for the nonintegrable Hubbard chain.

The standard Fermi-Hubbard chain becomes nonintegrable by adding to the nearest neighbor hopping additional longer range hopping amplitudes. We assume that the quartic interaction is weak and investigate numerically the dynamics of the chain on the level of the Boltzmann type kinetic equation. Only the spatially homogeneous case is considered. We observe that the huge degeneracy of stationary states in the case of nearest neighbor hopping is lost and the convergence to the thermal Fermi-Dirac distribution is restored. The convergence to equilibrium is exponentially fast. However for small next-nearest neighbor hopping amplitudes one has a rapid relaxation towards the manifold of quasistationary states and slow relaxation to the final equilibrium state.

Matrix-valued Boltzmann equation for the Hubbard chain.

We study, both analytically and numerically, the Boltzmann transport equation for the Hubbard chain with nearest-neighbor hopping and spatially homogeneous initial condition. The time-dependent Wigner function is matrix-valued because of spin. The H theorem holds. The nearest-neighbor chain is integrable, which, on the kinetic level, is reflected by infinitely many additional conservation laws and linked to the fact that there are also nonthermal stationary states. We characterize all stationary solutions. Numerically, we observe an exponentially fast convergence to stationarity and investigate the convergence rate in dependence on the initial conditions.

Minimally invasive postmortem telebiopsy.

For the past 10 years, medical imaging techniques have been increasingly applied to forensic investigations. To obtain histological and toxicological information, tissue and liquid samples are required. In this article, we describe the development of a low-cost, secure, and reliable approach for a telematic add-on for remotely planning biopsies on the Virtobot robotic system. Data sets are encrypted and submitted over the Internet. A plugin for the OsiriX medical image viewer allows for remote planning of needle trajectories that are used for needle placement. The application of teleradiological methods to image-guided biopsy in the forensic setting has the potential to reduce costs and, in conjunction with a mobile computer tomographic scanner, allows for tissue sampling in a mass casualty situation involving nuclear, biological, or chemical agents, in a manner that minimizes the risk to involved staff.

Virtobot--a multi-functional robotic system for 3D surface scanning and automatic post mortem biopsy.

BACKGROUND: The Virtopsy project, a multi-disciplinary project that involves forensic science, diagnostic imaging, computer science, automation technology, telematics and biomechanics, aims to develop new techniques to improve the outcome of forensic investigations. This paper presents a new approach in the field of minimally invasive virtual autopsy for a versatile robotic system that is able to perform three-dimensional (3D) surface scans as well as post mortem image-guided soft tissue biopsies. METHODS: The system consists of an industrial six-axis robot with additional extensions (i.e. a linear axis to increase working space, a tool-changing system and a dedicated safety system), a multi-slice CT scanner with equipment for angiography, a digital photogrammetry and 3D optical surface-scanning system, a 3D tracking system, and a biopsy end effector for automatic needle placement. A wax phantom was developed for biopsy accuracy tests. RESULTS: Surface scanning times were significantly reduced (scanning times cut in half, calibration three times faster). The biopsy module worked with an accuracy of 3.2 mm. DISCUSSION: Using the Virtobot, the surface-scanning procedure could be standardized and accelerated. The biopsy module is accurate enough for use in biopsies in a forensic setting. CONCLUSION: The Virtobot can be utilized for several independent tasks in the field of forensic medicine, and is sufficiently versatile to be adapted to different tasks in the future.

Experimental demonstration of free-space decoy-state quantum key distribution over 144 km.

We report on the experimental implementation of a Bennett-Brassard 1984 (BB84) protocol type quantum key distribution over a 144 km free-space link using weak coherent laser pulses. Optimization of the link transmission was achieved with bidirectional active telescope tracking, and the security was ensured by employing decoy-state analysis. This enabled us to distribute a secure key at a rate of 12.8 bit/s at an attenuation of about 35 dB. Utilizing a simple transmitter setup and an optical ground station capable of tracking a spacecraft in low earth orbit, this outdoor experiment demonstrates the feasibility of global key distribution via satellites.

Robot-assisted biopsy using ultrasound guidance: initial results from in vitro tests.

The purpose of this study was to develop a robotic system for ultrasound (US)-guided biopsy and to validate the feasibility, accuracy and efficacy using phantom tests. Twenty peas (mean diameter 9.3+/-0.1 mm) embedded within a gel-phantom were selected for biopsy. Once the best access was defined, the position of the US transducer was recorded by an optical tracking system. Positional data of the transducer and the corresponding US image were transferred to the roboter planning system (LINUX-based industrial PC equipped with video capture card). Once the appropriate position, angulation and pitch were calculated, the robotic arm moved automatically with seven degrees-of-freedom to the planned insertion path, aiming the needle-positioning unit at the center of the target. Then, the biopsy was performed manually using a coaxial technique. The length of all harvested specimens was measured, and the deviation of the actual needle tract from the center of the target was evaluated sonographically. In all targets, the biopsy specimen (mean length 5+/-1.2 mm) was harvested with only one needle pass required The mean deviation of the needle tip from the center of the target was 1.1+/-0.8 mm. Robotic assisted biopsies in-vitro using US-guidance were feasible and provided high accuracy.