Molecular pathways of major depressive disorder converge on the synapse.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a psychiatric disease of still poorly understood molecular etiology. Extensive studies at different molecular levels point to a high complexity of numerous interrelated pathways as the underpinnings of depression. Major systems under consideration include monoamines, stress, neurotrophins and neurogenesis, excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission, mitochondrial dysfunction, (epi)genetics, inflammation, the opioid system, myelination, and the gut-brain axis, among others. This review aims at illustrating how these multiple signaling pathways and systems may interact to provide a more comprehensive view of MDD's neurobiology. In particular, considering the pattern of synaptic activity as the closest physical representation of mood, emotion, and conscience we can conceptualize, each pathway or molecular system will be scrutinized for links to synaptic neurotransmission. Models of the neurobiology of MDD will be discussed as well as future actions to improve the understanding of the disease and treatment options.

Mitochondrial health index correlates with plasma circulating cell-free mitochondrial DNA in bipolar disorder.

Although mitochondrial dysfunction is known to play an essential role in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD), there is a glaring gap in our understanding of how mitochondrial dysfunction can modulate clinical phenotypes. An emerging paradigm suggests mitochondria play an important non-energetic role in adaptation to stress, impacting cellular resilience and acting as a source of systemic allostatic load. Known as mitochondrial allostatic load, this (phenomenon) occurs when mitochondria are unable to recalibrate and maintain cell homeostasis. This study aimed to evaluate the composite mitochondrial health index (MHI) in BD subjects and non-psychiatry controls. We will also explore whether lower MIH will be related to higher cell-free mtDNA (ccf-mtDNA) levels and poor clinical outcomes. In this study, 14 BD-I patients and 16 age- and sex-matched non-psychiatry controls were enrolled. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were used to measure the enzymatic activities of citrate synthase and complexes I, II, and IV and mtDNA copy number. Ccf-mtDNA was evaluated by qPCR in plasma. Mitochondrial quality control (MQC) proteins were evaluated by western blotting. After adjusting for confounding variables, such as age, sex, body mass index (BMI), and smoking status, patients with BD presented lower MHI compared to non-psychiatry controls, as well as higher ccf-mtDNA levels that negatively correlated with MHI. Because the MQC network is essential to maintain mitochondrial health, MHI and ccf-mtDNA were also examined in relation to several MQC-related proteins, such as Fis-1, Opa-1, and LC3. Our results showed that MHI correlated negatively with Fis-1 and positively with Opa-1 and LC3. Accordingly, ccf-mtDNA had a positive correlation with Fis-1 and a negative correlation with Opa-1 and LC3. Furthermore, we found a noteworthy inverse correlation between illness severity and MHI, with lower MHI and higher ccf-mtDNA levels in subjects with a longer illness duration, worse functional status, and higher depressive symptoms. Our findings indicate that mitochondrial allostatic load contributes to BD, suggesting mitochondria represent a potential biological intersection point that could contribute to impaired cellular resilience and increased vulnerability to stress and mood episodes. Ultimately, by linking mitochondrial dysfunction to disease progression and poor outcomes, we might be able to build a predictive marker that explains how mitochondrial function and its regulation contribute to BD development and that may eventually serve as a treatment guide for both old and new therapeutic targets.

Barriers to and facilitators of success for early and Mid-Career professionals focused on bipolar disorder: A global needs survey by the International Society for Bipolar Disorders.

INTRODUCTION: The International Society for Bipolar Disorders created the Early Mid-Career Committee (EMCC) to support career development of the next generation of researchers and clinicians specializing in bipolar disorder (BD). To develop new infrastructure and initiatives, the EMCC completed a Needs Survey of the current limitations and gaps that restrict recruitment and retention of researchers and clinicians focused on BD. METHODS: The EMCC Needs Survey was developed through an iterative process, relying on literature and content expertise of workgroup members. The survey included 8 domains: navigating transitional career stages, creating and fostering mentorship, research activities, raising academic profile, clinical-research balance, networking and collaboration, community engagement, work-life balance. The final survey was deployed from May to August 2022 and was available in English, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Chinese. RESULTS: Three hundred participants across six continents completed the Needs Survey. Half of the participants self-identified as belonging to an underrepresented group in health-related sciences (i.e., from certain gender, racial, ethnic, cultural, or disadvantaged backgrounds including individuals with disabilities). Quantitative results and qualitative content analysis revealed key barriers to pursuing a research career focused on BD with unique challenges specific to scientific writing and grant funding. Participants highlighted mentorship as a key facilitator of success in research and clinical work. CONCLUSION: The results of the Needs Survey are a call to action to support early- and midcareer professionals pursuing a career in BD. Interventions required to address the identified barriers will take coordination, creativity, and resources to develop, implement, and encourage uptake but will have long-lasting benefits for research, clinical practice, and ultimately those affected by BD.

Understanding heterogeneity in suicidal thoughts and behaviours and the implications for genetic studies - a commentary on Lannoy et al. (2022).

Preventing suicidal thoughts and behaviours (STB) among youth is a global public health priority. STB are known to have a heritable basis, and the development of risk for STB likely arises from complex gene-environment interactions across the life course. Lannoy et al. (Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63, 2022 and 1164) describe a study in which polygenic risk for suicide attempt, as well as recent negative life events, were related to recent suicidal ideation in adolescents of about 17 years old. Building on this important work, we highlight several critical areas of focus for research in suicide genetics, including problems of measurement, as well as priorities for better uncovering the specific aetiological pathways to STB.

Within subject cross-tissue analyzes of epigenetic clocks in substance use disorder postmortem brain and blood.

There is a possible accelerated biological aging in patients with substance use disorders (SUD). The evaluation of epigenetic clocks, which are accurate estimators of biological aging based on DNA methylation changes, has been limited to blood tissue in patients with SUD. Consequently, the impact of biological aging in the brain of individuals with SUD remains unknown. In this study, we evaluated multiple epigenetic clocks (DNAmAge, DNAmAgeHannum, DNAmAgeSkinBlood, DNAmPhenoAge, DNAmGrimAge, and DNAmTL) in individuals with SUD (n = 42), including alcohol (n = 10), opioid (n = 19), and stimulant use disorder (n = 13), and controls (n = 10) in postmortem brain (prefrontal cortex) and blood tissue obtained from the same individuals. We found a higher DNAmPhenoAge (ß = 0.191, p-value = 0.0104) and a nominally lower DNAmTL (ß = -0.149, p-value = 0.0603) in blood from individuals with SUD compared to controls. SUD subgroup analysis showed a nominally lower brain DNAmTL in subjects with alcohol use disorder, compared to stimulant use disorder and controls (ß = 0.0150, p-value = 0.087). Cross-tissue analyzes indicated a lower blood DNAmTL and a higher blood DNAmAge compared to their respective brain values in the SUD group. This study highlights the relevance of tissue specificity in biological aging studies and suggests that peripheral measures of epigenetic clocks in SUD may depend on the specific type of drug used.

Angiogenic gene networks are dysregulated in opioid use disorder: evidence from multi-omics and imaging of postmortem human brain.

Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a public health crisis in the U.S. that causes over 50 thousand deaths annually due to overdose. Using next-generation RNA sequencing and proteomics techniques, we identified 394 differentially expressed (DE) coding and long noncoding (lnc) RNAs as well as 213 DE proteins in Brodmann Area 9 of OUD subjects. The RNA and protein changes converged on pro-angiogenic gene networks and cytokine signaling pathways. Four genes (LGALS3, SLC2A1, PCLD1, and VAMP1) were dysregulated in both RNA and protein. Dissecting these DE genes and networks, we found cell type-specific effects with enrichment in astrocyte, endothelial, and microglia correlated genes. Weighted-genome correlation network analysis (WGCNA) revealed cell-type correlated networks including an astrocytic/endothelial/microglia network involved in angiogenic cytokine signaling as well as a neuronal network involved in synaptic vesicle formation. In addition, using ex vivo magnetic resonance imaging, we identified increased vascularization in postmortem brains from a subset of subjects with OUD. This is the first study integrating dysregulation of angiogenic gene networks in OUD with qualitative imaging evidence of hypervascularization in postmortem brain. Understanding the neurovascular effects of OUD is critical in this time of widespread opioid use.

Genetics and epigenetics of self-injurious thoughts and behaviors: Systematic review of the suicide literature and methodological considerations.

Suicide is a multifaceted and poorly understood clinical outcome, and there is an urgent need to advance research on its phenomenology and etiology. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that suicidal behavior is heritable, suggesting that genetic and epigenetic information may serve as biomarkers for suicide risk. Here we systematically review the literature on genetic and epigenetic alterations observed in phenotypes across the full range of self-injurious thoughts and behaviors (SITB). We included 577 studies focused on genome-wide and epigenome-wide associations, candidate genes (SNP and methylation), noncoding RNAs, and histones. Convergence of specific genes is limited across units of analysis, although pathway-based analyses do indicate nervous system development and function and immunity/inflammation as potential underlying mechanisms of SITB. We provide suggestions for future work on the genetic and epigenetic correlates of SITB with a specific focus on measurement issues.

Genome-Wide Correlation of DNA Methylation and Gene Expression in Postmortem Brain Tissues of Opioid Use Disorder Patients.

BACKGROUND: Opioid use disorder (OUD) affects millions of people, causing nearly 50 000 deaths annually in the United States. While opioid exposure and OUD are known to cause widespread transcriptomic and epigenetic changes, few studies in human samples have been conducted. Understanding how OUD affects the brain at the molecular level could help decipher disease pathogenesis and shed light on OUD treatment. METHODS: We generated genome-wide transcriptomic and DNA methylation profiles of 22 OUD subjects and 19 non-psychiatric controls. We applied weighted gene co-expression network analysis to identify genetic markers consistently associated with OUD at both transcriptomic and methylomic levels. We then performed functional enrichment for biological interpretation. We employed cross-omics analysis to uncover OUD-specific regulatory networks. RESULTS: We found 6 OUD-associated co-expression gene modules and 6 co-methylation modules (false discovery rate <0.1). Genes in these modules are involved in astrocyte and glial cell differentiation, gliogenesis, response to organic substance, and response to cytokine (false discovery rate <0.05). Cross-omics analysis revealed immune-related transcription regulators, suggesting the role of transcription factor-targeted regulatory networks in OUD pathogenesis. CONCLUSIONS: Our integrative analysis of multi-omics data in OUD postmortem brain samples suggested complex gene regulatory mechanisms involved in OUD-associated expression patterns. Candidate genes and their upstream regulators revealed in astrocyte, and glial cells could provide new insights into OUD treatment development.

Alterations in plasma kynurenine pathway metabolites in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder and unaffected offspring of bipolar parents: A preliminary study.

BACKGROUND: There has been growing scientific evidence in recent years that bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with alterations in the kynurenine (KYN) pathway. However, many of these studies have been limited by their focus on adults. Thus, this preliminary study investigated differences in the peripheral levels of KYN metabolites in children and adolescents with BD, unaffected offspring of parents with BD, and healthy controls (HCs). METHODS: Plasma samples were collected from 49 youths with BD, 19 bipolar offspring, and 31 HCs. Tryptophan (TRP), KYN, and kynurenic acid (KYNA) were separated using electrospray ionization. RESULTS: One-Way ANCOVA after controlling for age, gender, race, BMI-for-age, and smoking status showed that BD had lower levels of KYN, while unaffected high-risk offspring subjects had lower levels of TRP, KYN, and KYNA when compared to HCs. Moreover, we found that KYN, KYN/TRP, and KYNA/KYN levels predicted the severity of depressive symptoms, while the YMRS score was not associated with any metabolite. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, this preliminary study has shown that KYN metabolites are decreased in both affected and unaffected subjects, strengthening the idea that the KYN pathway might underlie the familial risk of BD shown by high-risk offspring individuals. However, longitudinal studies are needed to examine whether the alterations observed in this study represent early markers of risk for later developing BD.

Accelerated hippocampal biological aging in bipolar disorder.

OBJECTIVES: Evidence suggests accelerated aging mechanisms in bipolar disorder (BD), including DNA methylation (DNAm) aging in blood. However, it is unknown whether such mechanisms are also evident in the brain, in particular in association with other biological clocks. To investigate this, we interrogated genome-wide DNAm in postmortem hippocampus from 32 BD-I patients and 32 non-psychiatric controls group-matched for age and sex from the NIMH Human Brain Collection Core. METHODS: DNAm age and epigenetic aging acceleration were estimated using the Horvath method. Telomere length (TL) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number were quantified by real-time PCR. Between-group differences were assessed by linear regression and univariate general linear models with age, sex, race, postmortem interval, tissue pH, smoking, and body mass index included as co-variates. RESULTS: Groups did not differ for epigenetic aging acceleration when considering the entire sample. However, after splitting the sample by the median age, an epigenetic aging acceleration was detected in patients compared to controls among older subjects (P = .042). While TL did not differ between groups, a reduction in mtDNA copy number was observed in patients compared to controls (P = .047). In addition, significant correlations were observed between epigenetic aging acceleration and TL (r = -.337, P = .006), as well as between TL and mtDNA copy number (r = .274, P = .028). CONCLUSIONS: Hippocampal aging may underlie neurocognitive dysfunctions observed in BD patients. Moreover, our results suggest a complex cross-talk between biological clocks in hippocampus that may underlie clinical manifestations of premature aging in BD.

Molecular Psychiatry: Trends and Study Examples.

In contrast to about 20-30 years ago, the concept that psychiatric diseases have a molecular basis is now widely accepted [...].

Brain Gene Expression-DNA Methylation Correlation in Suicide Completers: Preliminary Results.

BACKGROUND: Gene expression alterations have been implicated in suicide pathology. However, the study of the regulatory effect of DNA methylation on gene expression in the suicidal brain has been restricted to candidate genes. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to identify genes whose expression levels are correlated with DNA methylation in the prefrontal cortex of suicides. METHODS: Postmortem prefrontal cortex samples from 21 suicides and six non-suicides were collected. Transcriptomic and DNA methylation profiles were evaluated with microarrays; cis correlations between gene expression and CpG methylation were screened. We then analyzed the presence of transcription factor (TF) binding sites (TFBS) at CpG sites correlated with gene expression. Gene expression of TFs involved in neurodevelopmental binding to predicted TFBS was determined in the BrainSpan database. RESULTS: We identified 22 CpG sites whose methylation levels correlated with gene expression in the prefrontal cortex of suicides. Genes annotated to identified CpG sites were involved in neurodevelopment (BBS4, NKX6-2, AXL, CTNND1, and MBP) and polyamine metabolism (polyamine oxidase [PAOX]). Such correlations were not detected in the nonsuicide group. Nine TFs (USF1, TBP, SF1, NRF1, RFX1, SP3, PKNOX1, MAZ, and POU3F2) showed differential expression in pre- and post-natal developmental periods, according to BrainSpan database. CONCLUSIONS: The integration of different omic technologies provided novel candidates for the investigation of genes whose expression is altered in the suicidal brain and their potential regulatory mechanisms.

MicroRNAs in Major Depressive Disorder.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a severe and chronic psychiatric disorder with a high prevalence in the population. Although our understanding of its pathophysiological mechanisms has significantly increased over the years, available treatments still present several limitations and are not effective to all MDD patients. Epigenetic mechanisms have recently been suggested to play key roles in MDD pathogenesis and treatment, including the effects of small noncoding RNAs known as microRNAs (miRNAs). miRNAs can modulate gene expression posttranscriptionally by interfering with the stability and translation of messenger RNA molecules and are also known to cross-talk with other epigenetic mechanisms. In this review, we will summarize and discuss recent findings of alterations in miRNAs in tissues of patients with MDD and evidence of treatment-induced effects in these molecules.

Elevated Plasma S100B, Psychotic Symptoms, and Cognition in Schizophrenia.

S100B is a calcium binding protein mainly produced by glial cells. Previous studies have shown elevated levels of S100B in patients with schizophrenia. We measured S100B levels in fasting plasma of 39 patients with schizophrenia and 19 adult healthy controls. We used linear regression to compare S100B between patients and controls. In patients only, we also investigated the relationship between S100B levels and psychotic symptoms (assessed by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale), and cognitive function (assessed by the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery), respectively by calculating Pearson's correlation coefficients. Mean plasma S100B was significantly higher in the patient group than in the control group. There were no significant correlations between plasma S100B and psychotic symptoms or cognition.

The FKBP51 Glucocorticoid Receptor Co-Chaperone: Regulation, Function, and Implications in Health and Disease.

Among the chaperones and co-chaperones regulating the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), FK506 binding protein (FKBP) 51 is the most intensely investigated across different disciplines. This review provides an update on the role of the different co-chaperones of Hsp70 and Hsp90 in the regulation of GR function. The development leading to the focus on FKBP51 is outlined. Further, a survey of the vast literature on the mechanism and function of FKBP51 is provided. This includes its structure and biochemical function, its regulation on different levels-transcription, post-transcription, and post-translation-and its function in signaling pathways. The evidence portraying FKBP51 as a scaffolding protein organizing protein complexes rather than a chaperone contributing to the folding of individual proteins is collated. Finally, FKBP51's involvement in physiology and disease is outlined, and the promising efforts in developing drugs targeting FKBP51 are discussed.

Estimating the direct effects of the genetic liabilities to bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and behavioral traits on suicide attempt using a multivariable Mendelian randomization approach.

Bipolar disorder (BD) and schizophrenia (SZ) are associated with higher odds of suicide attempt (SA). In this study, we aimed to explore the effect of BD and SZ genetic liabilities on SA, also considering the contribution of behavioral traits, socioeconomic factors, and substance use disorders. Leveraging large-scale genome-wide association data from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC) and the UK Biobank (UKB), we conducted a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to evaluate the putative causal effect of BD (41,917 cases, 371,549 controls) and SZ (53,386 cases, 77,258 controls) on SA (26,590 cases, 492,022 controls). Then, we assessed the putative causal effect of BD and SZ on behavioral traits, socioeconomic factors, and substance use disorders. Considering the associations identified, we evaluated the direct causal effect of behavioral traits, socioeconomic factors, and substance use disorders on SA using a multivariable MR approach. The genetic liabilities to BD and SZ were associated with higher odds of SA (BD odds ratio (OR) = 1.24, p = 3.88 × 10-12; SZ OR = 1.09, p = 2.44 × 10-20). However, while the effect of mental distress (OR = 1.17, p = 1.02 × 10-4) and risk-taking (OR = 1.52, p = 0.028) on SA was independent of SZ genetic liability, the BD-SA relationship appeared to account for the effect of these risk factors. Similarly, the association with loneliness on SA was null after accounting for the effect of SZ genetic liability. These findings highlight the complex interplay between genetic risk of psychiatric disorders and behavioral traits in the context of SA, suggesting the need for a comprehensive mental health assessment for high-risk individuals.

Prenatal cocaine exposure and its influence on pediatric epigenetic clocks and epigenetic scores in humans.

The investigation of the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) on offspring has been inconsistent, with few studies investigating biological outcomes in humans. We profiled genome-wide DNA methylation (DNAm) of umbilical cord blood (UCB) from newborns with (n = 35) and without (n = 47) PCE. We used DNAm data to (1) assess pediatric epigenetic clocks at birth and (2) to estimate epigenetic scores (ES) for lifetime disorders. We generated gestational epigenetic age estimates (DNAmGA) based on Knight and Bohlin epigenetic clocks. We also investigated the association between DNAmGA and UCB serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. Considering the large-scale DNAm data availability and existing evidence regarding PCE as a risk for health problems later in life, we generated ES for tobacco smoking, psychosis, autism, diabetes, and obesity. A gene ontology (GO) analysis on the CpGs included in the ES with group differences was performed. PCE was associated with lower DNAmGA in newborns, and this effect remained significant when controlling for potential confounders, such as blood cell type composition predicted by DNAm and obstetric data. DNAmGA was negatively correlated with BDNF levels in the serum of UCB. Higher tobacco smoking, psychosis, and diabetes ES were found in the PCE group. The GO analysis revealed GABAergic synapses as a potential pathway altered by PCE. Our findings of decelerated DNAmGA and ES for adverse phenotypes associated with PCE, suggest that the effects of gestational cocaine exposure on the epigenetic landscape of human newborns are detectable at birth.

Biological aging markers in blood and brain tissue indicate age acceleration in alcohol use disorder.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is associated with increased mortality and morbidity risk. A reason for this could be accelerated biological aging, which is strongly influenced by disease processes such as inflammation. As recent studies of AUD show changes in DNA methylation and gene expression in neuroinflammation-related pathways in the brain, biological aging represents a potentially important construct for understanding the adverse effects of substance use disorders. Epigenetic clocks have shown accelerated aging in blood samples from individuals with AUD. However, no systematic evaluation of biological age measures in AUD across different tissues and brain regions has been undertaken. METHODS: As markers of biological aging (BioAge markers), we assessed Levine's and Horvath's epigenetic clocks, DNA methylation telomere length (DNAmTL), telomere length (TL), and mitochondrial DNA copy number (mtDNAcn) in postmortem brain samples from Brodmann Area 9 (BA9), caudate nucleus, and ventral striatum (N = 63-94), and in whole blood samples (N = 179) of individuals with and without AUD. To evaluate the association between AUD status and BioAge markers, we performed linear regression analyses while adjusting for covariates. RESULTS: The majority of BioAge markers were significantly associated with chronological age in all samples. Levine's epigenetic clock and DNAmTL were indicative of accelerated biological aging in AUD in BA9 and whole blood samples, while Horvath's showed the opposite effect in BA9. No significant association of AUD with TL and mtDNAcn was detected. Measured TL and DNAmTL showed only small correlations in blood and none in brain. CONCLUSIONS: The present study is the first to simultaneously investigate epigenetic clocks, telomere length, and mtDNAcn in postmortem brain and whole blood samples in individuals with AUD. We found evidence for accelerated biological aging in AUD in blood and brain, as measured by Levine's epigenetic clock, and DNAmTL. Additional studies of different tissues from the same individuals are needed to draw valid conclusions about the congruence of biological aging in blood and brain.