Trends in calls to a state poisons centre and presentation to emergency departments for intentional antidepressant overdose in Victoria, Australia.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the rates and trends of emergency department presentations and calls to a state poisons centre for antidepressant overdose. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study utilising the Victorian Emergency Minimum Dataset and Victorian Poisons Information Centre call registry between January 2009 and December 2018 was conducted. This captured all presentations to Victorian emergency departments and calls to the Victorian Poisons Information Centre. Any intentional overdose involving an antidepressant was included. Annual rates of emergency department presentations and calls per 100,000 persons and 100,000 prescriptions for antidepressants overall and individual antidepressant classes, in addition to age-group-specific rates, were reported. RESULTS: A total of 3650 presentations to emergency department and 7096 calls to the poisons centre were included. No changes were seen in overall emergency department presentation rates when controlled for population or prescription numbers, but large and significant increases were seen for younger age groups. The 10-14- and 15-19-year age groups had average annual increases of 13.1% (95% CI = [6.5%, 19.7%], p < 0.001) and 7.2% (95% CI = [2.8%, 11.5%], p < 0.001) per 100,000 persons, respectively. Increases were seen in overall annual call rates of 6.7% (95% CI = [5.2%, 8.1%], p < 0.001) per 100,000 persons and 7.5% (95% CI = [4.9%, 10.1%], p < 0.001) per 100,000 prescriptions. CONCLUSION: Overall, emergency department presentation rates remained stable during the study period. Overall poisons centre call rates increased moderately. However, when examining younger persons, large increases were seen in both emergency department presentations and poison centre call rates. These findings highlight the need for future interventions to mitigate against intentional overdose in younger populations.

Paracetamol toxicity in mild overdose in combination with opioids: A retrospective observational study.

AIMS: Toxicity in paracetamol overdose with opioid co-ingestion is poorly understood. We compared outcomes in both paracetamol-only and paracetamol-opioid overdoses to determine whether toxicity differed significantly between the groups, and to assess the utility of the ratio of measured plasma paracetamol concentration relative to the 4-hour nomogram-adjusted level (APAPpl /APAPt ). METHODS: We conducted a retrospective observational study of all patients (n = 1159) presenting to 2 large UK hospitals between 2005 and 2013 with acute single-dose ingestion paracetamol overdose, with (n = 221) or without (n = 938) opioid co-ingestion. Adverse outcomes included biomarkers of hepatotoxicity and the need for extended treatment. Several outcomes were assessed in relation to the APAPpl /APAPt ratio. RESULTS: Median ingested dose of paracetamol was low in both groups (10 g). Statistical comparison of the median APAPpl /APAPt ratios showed a significant difference (0.65 vs. 0.56 for the paracetamol-only and paracetamol-opioid groups respectively, P = .0329). Although there was a trend towards a lower risk of predefined toxic outcomes with opioid co-ingestion, statistical analysis did not show a significant difference, with outcomes for the paracetamol-only and paracetamol-opioid groups including the following: alanine transaminase >2× upper limit of normal, 7.7 vs. 5.7% (P = .6480); alanine transaminase >1000 IU/L, 2.4 vs. 0% (P = .2145); international normalised ratio > 1.3, 8.6 vs. 4.4% (P = .2774); and transfer to tertiary liver unit, 0.2 vs. 0% (P nonsignificant). CONCLUSION: Our study does not support a change in current clinical practise beyond standard testing at 4 hours or longer post ingestion for mixed low dose paracetamol-opioid overdose.

Increasing emergency department attendances in central London with methamphetamine toxicity and associated harms.

BACKGROUND: Methamphetamine is a stimulant drug of abuse with increasing prevalence of use worldwide leading to public health concern. While previous research by our group a decade ago found no evidence of increasing harms associated with methamphetamine use in the UK, there are conflicting data on whether or not this is still the case. This paper aims to identify trends in methamphetamine-related harms and characterise the clinical features of ED presentations involving methamphetamine with gamma-hydroxybutyrate/gamma-butyrolactone (GHB/GBL). METHODS: We retrospectively interrogated a database of all toxicology-related presentations to two central London EDs, extracting data on drugs involved for presentations relating to methamphetamine between 2005 and 2018 to enable analysis of trends. Further clinical data were extracted for presentations between 2014 and 2018 to give a 4-year case series. RESULTS: A total of 1244 presentations involving the use of methamphetamine were identified. The number of presentations rose from 4 in 2005 (1.9% of all recreational drug presentations) to 294 (16.2%) in 2018. A total of 850 cases were identified for the 2014-2018 case series, 94.9% were male with a median (range) age of 35.1 (16-67) years. The most common clinical features in the methamphetamine presentations were neuropsychiatric: agitation (41.5%), anxiety (35.2%), hallucinations (16.5%) and psychosis (14.8%). GHB/GBL was co-used in 54.2% of presentations and appeared to attenuate the neuropsychiatric features seen. Use of GHB/GBL was associated with a higher Poisoning Severity Score and requirement for level 2/3 (high dependency unit/intensive care unit (ICU)) care. CONCLUSION: ED attendances in central London relating to methamphetamine use have risen over the last decade. Combining methamphetamine with GHB/GBL is common and is associated with a higher Poisoning Severity Score and need for ICU level care. Further work is required to establish whether further resources need to be directed at this clinical and public health problem.

A prospective, randomized, double-blind trial of intravenous chlorpromazine versus intravenous prochlorperazine for the treatment of acute migraine in adults presenting to the emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the efficacy of intravenous chlorpromazine versus intravenous prochlorperazine for the treatment of acute migraine in adults presenting to the emergency department (ED). BACKGROUND: Migraine is a common, incapacitating neurological condition. Although chlorpromazine and prochlorperazine are known to be safe, efficacious treatments for migraine, they have never been directly compared. DESIGN: We performed a prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical trial at a tertiary hospital in Melbourne, Australia. Adults aged 18-65 years, who presented with migraine, were eligible for recruitment. Sixty-six patients were randomized to either chlorpromazine 12.5 mg or prochlorperazine 12.5 mg, both infused in 500 ml of sodium chloride 0.9% over 30 min. Headache severity score, nausea severity score, and the presence of photophobia and phonophobia were assessed at 0, 30, 60, and 120 min. Adverse effects and the need for rescue therapy were recorded. The primary outcome was a reduction in headache severity score from baseline at 60 min post-commencement of the study medicine infusion. RESULTS: Sixty-five patients were included in the analysis. There was a median reduction in headache severity score at 60 min of 3.0 (interquartile range 1.0-4.0) in the chlorpromazine arm versus 2.0 (1.0-4.0) in the prochlorperazine arm (median difference -0.5 (95% confidence interval, -1.9 to 0.9)). We saw no evidence of a difference in secondary outcomes at 30, 60, or 120 min. Side effects were reported in 16/32 (50%) patients in the chlorpromazine group versus 7/33 (21%) in the prochlorperazine group (p = 0.020). Rescue therapy was required in 7/32 (22%) patients in the chlorpromazine group versus 12/33 (36%) in the prochlorperazine group (p = 0.277). CONCLUSIONS: Both chlorpromazine and prochlorperazine are efficacious treatments for acute migraine in adult patients presenting to the ED. This trial found no evidence of superiority of either agent over the other. Caution should be used when prescribing these medicines in the borderline hypotensive patient; in that circumstance, prochlorperazine should be preferentially used.

Iatrogenic medication errors reported to the Victorian Poisons Information Centre.

BACKGROUND: Iatrogenic medication errors are a cause of medical morbidity and mortality. They result in significant cost to the Australian healthcare system each year. There is limited Australian evidence describing the iatrogenic errors occurring within the hospital system. AIMS: To examine and describe iatrogenic medication errors occurring in Victorian healthcare settings through the analysis of referrals to a state Poisons Information Centre (PIC). METHODS: A retrospective review of iatrogenic medication errors reported to the Victorian PIC (VPIC) from community and hospital healthcare settings from January 2015 to December 2019. RESULTS: Over a 5-year period, 357 iatrogenic errors were identified, 63% (n = 224) of which occurred in a hospital setting. The remaining errors occurred in a community healthcare setting. One in five patients were symptomatic from the medication error at the time of the call to the VPIC, and a change in management was required in 45% (n = 165) of all cases. Five percent (n = 17) of patients developed moderate to severe clinical toxicity as determined by the recorded poisoning severity score, and 88% (n = 18) of these required critical care management. Incorrect medication dosing accounted for 62% (n = 221) of errors. Common medication dosing errors included: double dose (51%, n = 114), incorrect medication administered (14%, n = 49), incorrect route (9%, n = 31), incorrect patient (6%, n = 22) and adult dose given to a child (4%, n = 15). CONCLUSIONS: Iatrogenic errors are occurring in the Victorian health care system. These errors can result in serious morbidity. Identification of causative factors and investment in preventative strategies will likely reduce associated morbidity and healthcare costs.

The NACSTOP Trial: A Multicenter, Cluster-Controlled Trial of Early Cessation of Acetylcysteine in Acetaminophen Overdose.

Historically, intravenous acetylcysteine has been delivered at a fixed dose and duration of 300 mg/kg over 20 to 21 hours to nearly every patient deemed to be at any risk for hepatotoxicity following acetaminophen overdose. We investigated a 12-hour treatment regimen for selected low-risk patients. This was a multicenter, open-label, cluster-controlled trial at six metropolitan emergency departments. We enrolled subjects following single or staggered acetaminophen overdose with normal serum alanine transaminase (ALT) and creatinine on presentation and at 12 hours, and less than 20 mg/L acetaminophen at 12 hours. Patients were allocated to intervention (250 mg/kg over 12-hour) or control (300 mg/kg over 20-hour) regimens by site. The primary outcome was incidence of "hepatic injury" 20 hours following initiation of acetylcysteine treatment, defined as ALT doubling and peak ALT greater than 100 IU/L, indicating the need for further antidotal treatment. Secondary outcomes included incidence of hepatotoxicity (ALT > 1,000 IU/L), peak international normalized ratio (INR), and adverse drug reactions. Of the 449 acetaminophen overdoses receiving acetylcysteine, 100 were recruited to the study. Time to acetylcysteine (median 7 hours [interquartile ratio 6,12] versus 7 hours [6,10]) and initial acetaminophen (124 mg/L [58,171] versus 146 mg/L [66,204]) were similar between intervention and control groups. There was no difference in ALT (18 IU/L [13,22] versus 16 IU/L [13,21]) or INR (1.2 versus 1.2) 20 hours after starting acetylcysteine between groups. No patients developed hepatic injury or hepatotoxicity in either group (odds ratio 1.0 [95% confidence interval 0.02, 50]). No patients represented with liver injury, none died, and 96 of 96 were well at 14-day telephone follow-up. Conclusion: Discontinuing acetylcysteine based on laboratory testing after 12 hours of treatment is feasible and likely safe in selected patients at very low risk of liver injury from acetaminophen overdose.

Lead poisoning associated with illicit opium use.

Lead poisoning is an uncommon and challenging diagnosis to make. In 2018, The Victorian Department of Health issued a health warning following four cases of lead poisoning associated with illicit opium use in Melbourne, Australia. We present these cases to highlight clinical features and the relevant investigations leading to diagnosis. All cases occurred in recent immigrants to Australia, who had access to non-traditional sources of opioids. Health care professionals should consider lead poisoning in patients with appropriate symptoms and a history of illicit opium use.

The fentanyls: pharmacological and clinical aspects relevant to Australia.

OBJECTIVE: North American and other jurisdictions have seen an alarming rise in the abuse of the fentanyls, with related overdose deaths. We sought to review this group of drugs to alert Australian psychiatrists and drug and alcohol clinicians to their clinical effects and potential harms. CONCLUSIONS: The extreme potency of the fentanyls underlie their lethality. Vigilance and investment from both policy makers and health care providers are required to mitigate harm from a possible future Australian fentanyl epidemic.

The fentanyls: a 'future threat' for Australia?

OBJECTIVE: The fentanyls have emerged as a significant public health threat in North America but much less so in Australia. We sought to identify reasons for this discrepancy and highlight harm reduction approaches that may mitigate a future Australian fentanyl epidemic. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in drug use 'culture' and a supply of cheap high-quality methamphetamine in Australia may be reasons for the observed difference in fentanyl-related harm. More worryingly, it is possible that Australia is following North American trends and that the fentanyl epidemic is still to come.

Outcomes from massive paracetamol overdose: a retrospective observational study.

LINKED ARTICLE: This article is commented on by Bateman DN and Dear JW. Should we treat very large paracetamol overdose differently? Br J Clin Pharmacol 2017; 83: 1163-5. https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.13279 AIMS: Treatment of paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose with acetylcysteine is standardized, with dose determined only by patient weight. The validity of this approach for massive overdoses has been questioned. We systematically compared outcomes in massive and non-massive overdoses, to guide whether alternative treatment strategies should be considered, and whether the ratio between measured timed paracetamol concentrations (APAPpl ) and treatment nomogram thresholds at those time points (APAPt ) provides a useful assessment tool. METHODS: This is a retrospective observational study of all patients (n = 545) between 2005 and 2013 admitted to a tertiary care toxicology service with acute non-staggered paracetamol overdose. Massive overdoses were defined as extrapolated 4-h plasma paracetamol concentrations >250 mg l-1 , or reported ingestions ≥30 g. Outcomes (liver injury, coagulopathy and kidney injury) were assessed in relation to reported dose and APAPpl :APAPt ratio (based on a treatment line through 100 mg l-1 at 4 h), and time to acetylcysteine. RESULTS: Ingestions of ≥30 g paracetamol correlated with higher peak serum aminotransferase (r = 0.212, P < 0.0001) and creatinine (r = 0.138, P = 0.002) concentrations. Acute liver injury, hepatotoxicity and coagulopathy were more frequent with APAPpl :APAPt  ≥ 3 with odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of 9.19 (5.04-16.68), 35.95 (8.80-158.1) and 8.34 (4.43-15.84), respectively (P < 0.0001). Heightened risk persisted in patients receiving acetylcysteine within 8 h of overdose. CONCLUSION: Patients presenting following massive paracetamol overdose are at higher risk of organ injury, even when acetylcysteine is administered early. Enhanced therapeutic strategies should be considered in those who have an APAPpl :APAPt  ≥ 3. Novel biomarkers of incipient liver injury and abbreviated acetylcysteine regimens require validation in this patient cohort.

Co-exposure to gamma-hydroxybutyrate is associated with attenuated neuropsychiatric and stimulant effects of metamfetamine.

INTRODUCTION: Acute metamfetamine toxicity is characterized by stimulant effects and neuropsychiatric disturbance, which is attenuated by gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor agonists including benzodiazepines. We utilized clinical registry data to examine the effect of co-exposure to a gamma-aminobutyric acid type B receptor agonist (gamma-hydroxybutyrate) in illicit drug cases with analytically confirmed exposure to metamfetamine. METHODS: The Emerging Drugs Network of Australia Victoria is an ethics board-approved prospective registry collecting clinical and analytical data (utilising blood samples) on emergency department illicit drug presentations. Comparison groups were defined by analytically confirmed exposure: lone metamfetamine, metamfetamine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate, metamfetamine plus benzodiazepine, metamfetamine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate plus benzodiazepine. Cases with co-exposure to other stimulants or sedatives were excluded. RESULTS: Median metamfetamine blood concentrations were significantly greater in metamfetamine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate (n = 153, median = 0.20 mg/L, interquartile range: 0.10-0.32 mg/L, 95 per cent confidence interval: 0.20-0.23 mg/L) and metamfetamine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate plus benzodiazepine (n = 160, median = 0.20 mg/L, interquartile range: 0.10-0.30 mg/L, 95 per cent confidence interval: 0.20-0.30 mg/L) positive groups compared to gamma-hydroxybutyrate negative groups including metamfetamine (n = 81, median = 0.10 mg/L, interquartile range: 0.05-0.21 mg/L, 95 per cent confidence interval: 0.09-0.18 mg/L) and metamfetamine plus benzodiazepine (n = 73, median = 0.10 mg/L, interquartile range: 0.06-0.20 mg/L, 95 per cent confidence interval: 0.09-0.20 mg/L) groups (P < 0.0004). Presenting heart rate in metamfetamine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate cases (n = 153, median = 72 beats per minute, interquartile range: 63-86 beats per minute, 95 per cent confidence interval: 70-78 beats per minute) was significantly lower than metamfetamine plus benzodiazepine cases (n = 73, median = 84 beats per minute, interquartile range: 73-98 beats per minute, 95 per cent confidence interval: 80-90 beats per minute, P < 0.0001), and lone metamfetamine cases (n = 81, median = 110 beats per minute, interquartile range: 87-131 beats per minute, 95 per cent confidence interval: 93-120 beats per minute, P < 0.0001). Presenting temperature in metamfetamine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate cases (median = 35.8 °C, interquartile range: 35.0-36.2 °C, 95 per cent confidence interval 35.6-35.9 °C) was significantly lower than metamfetamine plus benzodiazepine cases (median 36.2 °C, interquartile range 35.7-36.6 °C, 95 per cent confidence interval, 36.0-36.4 °C, P = 0.017), and lone metamfetamine cases (median = 36.5 °C, interquartile range: 35.8-37.1 °C, 95 per cent confidence interval: 36.2-36.7 °C, P < 0.0001). Median presenting systolic blood pressure was significantly (P ≤ 0.001) lower in benzodiazepine positive groups (metamfetamine plus benzodiazepine median = 120 mmHg, interquartile range: 109-132 mmHg, 95 per cent confidence interval: 116-124 mmHg and metamfetamine plus benzodiazepine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate median = 124 mmHg, interquartile range: 110-137 mmHg, 95 per cent confidence interval: 120-129 mmHg). Incidence of sedation (Glasgow Coma Scale less than 9) was significantly greater in metamfetamine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate cases (63 per cent) compared to metamfetamine plus benzodiazepine cases (27 per cent, P < 0.0001) and lone metamfetamine cases (15 per cent, P < 0.0001). Incidence of agitation was significantly lower in metamfetamine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate plus benzodiazepine cases (17 per cent, P < 0.0001) and metamfetamine plus gamma-hydroxybutyrate cases (34 per cent, P = 0.0004) compared to lone metamfetamine cases (58 per cent). DISCUSSION: Differences in gamma-aminobutyric acid type A and B receptor physiology may offer a gamma-aminobutyric acid type B agonist-facilitated alternative pharmacodynamic mechanism able to attenuate metamfetamine stimulant and neuropsychiatric toxicity. CONCLUSION: Metamfetamine intoxicated patients with analytically confirmed co-exposure to gamma-hydroxybutyrate had significantly reduced heart rate, body temperature and incidence of agitation compared to patients with lone metamfetamine exposure. Metamfetamine intoxicated patients with analytically confirmed co-exposure to a benzodiazepine had significantly reduced systolic blood pressure compared to patients with lone metamfetamine exposure. We hypothesize that gamma-aminobutyric acid type B receptor agonists may be beneficial in the management of acute metamfetamine toxicity.

Novel harm reduction measures at music festivals in Australia: Pilot implementation of the Emerging Drugs Network of Australia-Victoria toxicosurveillance methodology.

INTRODUCTION: Harm reduction strategies at music festivals seek to create a safer environment for patrons. The Emerging Drugs Network of Australia-Victoria (EDNAV) project is a state-wide toxicosurveillance network that derives drug intelligence from a sample of patients presenting to hospital with illicit drug-related toxicity. This publication describes the preliminary outcomes of conducting toxicosurveillance for critically unwell festival patrons within on-site medical facilities. METHODS: Blood samples were collected from patrons who presented with severe illicit drug-related toxicity across three festivals (2022/2023). Blood samples were analysed via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for over 700 pharmaceutical and illicit drugs. RESULTS: There were 1603 individual medical encounters across the festivals, 228 of which were illicit drug related. A blood sample was collected for 24 patients, with a median age of 22 years (range 18-39 years). A median of two drugs (range 1-5 drugs) were reported and four drugs (range 0-8 drugs) were analytically confirmed per patient. The most frequently reported exposures were congruent with analytical results, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (reported n = 17, detected n = 20), ketamine (reported n = 9, detected n = 13) and cocaine (reported n = 9, detected n = 12). An unreported illicit drug and/or new psychoactive substance (NPS) was detected in 18 patients, including methylamphetamine (n = 10), a cathinone (n = 7), benzodiazepine-type NPS (n = 6), N-ethylamphetamine (n = 1), 3-hydroxyphencyclidine (n = 1) and/or 4-hydroxy-N-methyl-N-isopropyltryptamine (n = 1). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: EDNAV toxicosurveillance serves as an additional tool within a multi-faceted approach to harm reduction at festivals. Continued data collection will allow for the characterisation of high-risk drug use patterns to provide evidence-based messaging to festival patrons and key stakeholders.

Protonitazene detection in two cases of opioid toxicity following the use of tetrahydrocannabinol vape products in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: Protonitazene is an opioid belonging to the 2-benzylbenzimidazole structural class. We describe two cases of opioid toxicity involving the reported inhalation of a delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol vape product in which protonitazene was detected. CASE REPORTS: Case 1 was a young male found unconscious after the reported use of a delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol vape. He suffered two subsequent apnoeic episodes requiring bag-valve-mask ventilation before eventual recovery. Only protonitazene was detected in blood at a concentration of 0.74 µg/L. Case 2 was a young male who died shortly after being found unresponsive. The postmortem femoral blood concentrations of protonitazene and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol were 0.33 µg/L and 2 µg/L, respectively. Analysis of a pod vaping device found in the decedent's hand and a separate e-liquid bottle labelled as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol showed a mixture of protonitazene and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. DISCUSSION: The opioid effects of protonitazene are mediated through ß-arrestin2 and mu opioid receptor signalling pathways. Benzimidazole opioids are lipophilic and, when mixed with a suitable solvent, can be used in a vape device. It is anticipated that naloxone would have provided effective reversal of toxicity in our cases. CONCLUSIONS: Novel routes of opioid administration, like vaping, may appear relatively innocuous in comparison to intravenous administration, but opioids may still be absorbed at high concentrations, resulting in severe opioid toxicity or death.

Identification of clobromazolam in Australian emergency department intoxications using data-independent high-resolution mass spectrometry and the HighResNPS.com database.

The proliferation of novel psychoactive substances (NPSs) continues to challenge toxicology laboratories. In particular, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime considers designer benzodiazepines to be a current primary threat among all NPSs. Herein, we report detection of a new emerging designer benzodiazepine, clobromazolam, using high-resolution mass spectrometry and untargeted data acquisition in combination with a "suspect screening" method built from the crowd-sourced HighResNPS.com database. Our laboratory first detected clobromazolam in emergency department presenting intoxications included within the Emerging Drugs Network of Australia-Victoria project in the state of Victoria, Australia, from April 2022 to March 2023. Clobromazolam was the most frequent designer benzodiazepine detected in this cohort (100/993 cases, 10%). No patients reported intentional administration of clobromazolam, although over half reported exposure to alprazolam, which was detected in only 7% of cases. Polydrug use was prevalent (98%), with phenazepam (45%), methylamphetamine (71%) and other benzodiazepines (60%) most frequently co-detected. This is the first case series published in the literature concerning clobromazolam in clinical patients. The identification of clobromazolam in patients presenting to emergency departments in Victoria demonstrates how high-resolution mass spectrometry coupled with the HighResNPS.com database can be a valuable tool to assist toxicology laboratories in keeping abreast of emerging psychoactive drug use.

A multicentre case series of analytically confirmed gamma-hydroxybutyrate intoxications in Western Australian emergency departments: Pre-hospital circumstances, co-detections and clinical outcomes.

INTRODUCTION: Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) use is associated with high risk of accidental overdose. This study examined the pre-hospital circumstances, demographic characteristics and clinical outcomes of analytically confirmed GHB emergency department (ED) presentations in Western Australia (WA). METHODS: This case series was conducted across three WA EDs involved in the Emerging Drugs Network of Australia, from April 2020 to July 2022. Patient demographics, pre-hospital drug exposure circumstances and ED presentation and outcome characteristics were collected from ambulance and hospital medical records of GHB-confirmed cases. RESULTS: GHB was detected in 45 ED presentations. The median age was 34 years and 53.3% (n = 24) were female. Most patients arrived at the ED by ambulance (n = 37, 85.7%) and required immediate emergency care (Australasian Triage Score 1 or 2 = 97.8%). One-third of patients were admitted to intensive care (n = 14, 31.1%). Methylamphetamine was co-detected in 37 (82.2%) GHB-confirmed cases. Reduced conscious state was indicated by first recorded Glasgow Coma Scale of ≤8 (n = 29, 64.4%) and observations of patients becoming, or being found, 'unresponsive' and 'unconscious' in various pre-hospital settings (n = 28, 62.2%). 'Agitated' and/or 'erratic' mental state and behavioural observations were recorded in 20 (44.4%) cases. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Analytically verified data from ED presentations with acute toxicity provides an objective information source on drug use trends and emerging public health threats. In our study, patients presenting to WA EDs with GHB intoxication were acutely unwell, often requiring intensive care treatment. The unexpectedly high proportion of female GHB intoxications and methylamphetamine co-ingestion warrants further exploration.

Snakebite in Australia: a practical approach to diagnosis and treatment.

Snakebite is a potential medical emergency and must receive high-priority assessment and treatment, even in patients who initially appear well. Patients should be treated in hospitals with onsite laboratory facilities, appropriate antivenom stocks and a clinician capable of treating complications such as anaphylaxis. All patients with suspected snakebite should be admitted to a suitable clinical unit, such as an emergency short-stay unit, for at least 12 hours after the bite. Serial blood testing (activated partial thromboplastin time, international normalised ratio and creatine kinase level) and neurological examinations should be done for all patients. Most snakebites will not result in significant envenoming and do not require antivenom. Antivenom should be administered as soon as there is evidence of envenoming. Evidence of systemic envenoming includes venom-induced consumption coagulopathy, sudden collapse, myotoxicity, neurotoxicity, thrombotic microangiopathy and renal impairment. Venomous snake groups each cause a characteristic clinical syndrome, which can be used in combination with local geographical distribution information to determine the probable snake involved and appropriate antivenom to use. The Snake Venom Detection Kit may assist in regions where the range of possible snakes is too broad to allow the use of monovalent antivenoms. When the snake identification remains unclear, two monovalent antivenoms (eg, brown snake and tiger snake antivenom) that cover possible snakes, or a polyvalent antivenom, can be used. One vial of the relevant antivenom is sufficient to bind all circulating venom. However, recovery may be delayed as many clinical and laboratory effects of venom are not immediately reversible. For expert advice on envenoming, contact the National Poisons Information Centre on 13 11 26.

Emergency department presentations in determining the effectiveness of drug control in the United Kingdom: mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) control appears to be effective using this model.

Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) and related cathinones were controlled in the United Kingdom on 16 April 2010. An analysis of presentations to the emergency department of patients with acute toxicity related to the use of mephedrone demonstrated that there was a peak in presentations prior to and a significant fall in presentations following the control of mephedrone. This suggests that the control of mephedrone in the United Kingdom may have been effective in reducing the acute harm associated with the drug.

A comparison of the accuracy of mushroom identification applications using digital photographs.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the accuracy of three popular mushroom identification software applications in identifying mushrooms involved in exposures reported to the Victorian Poisons Information Centre and Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria. BACKGROUND: Over the past 10 years, an increasing number of software applications have been developed for use on smart phones and tablet devices to identify mushrooms. We have observed an increase in poisonings after incorrect identification of poisonous species as edible, using these applications. DESIGN: We compared the accuracy of three iPhone™ and Android™ mushroom identification applications: Picture Mushroom (Next Vision Limited©), Mushroom Identificator (Pierre Semedard©), and iNaturalist (iNaturalist, California Academy of Sciences©). Each app was tested independently by three researchers using digital photographs of 78 specimens sent to the Victorian Poisons Information Centre and Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria over a two-year period, 2020-2021. Mushroom identification was confirmed by an expert mycologist. For each app, individual and combined results were compared. RESULTS: Picture Mushroom was the most accurate of the three apps and correctly identified 49% (95% CI [0-100]) of specimens, compared with Mushroom Identificator (35% [15-56]) and iNaturalist (35% [0-76]). Picture Mushroom correctly identified 44% of poisonous mushrooms [0-95], compared with Mushroom Identificator (30% [1-58]) and iNaturalist (40% [0-84), but Mushroom Identificator identified more specimens of Amanita phalloides correctly (67%), compared to Picture Mushroom (60%) and iNaturalist (27%). Amanita phalloides was falsely identified, twice by Picture Mushroom and once by iNaturalist. CONCLUSIONS: Mushroom identification applications may be useful future tools to assist clinical toxicologists and the general public in the accurate identification of mushrooms species but, at present, are not reliable enough to exclude exposure to potentially poisonous mushrooms when used alone.