Mouse testicular transcriptome after modulation of non-canonical oestrogen receptor activity.

The aims of this study were to shed light on the role of G-protein-coupled membrane oestrogen receptor (GPER) and oestrogen-related receptor (ERR) in mouse testis function at the gene expression level, as well as the involvement of GPER and ERR in cellular and molecular processes. Male mice were injected (50µg kg-1,s.c.) with the GPER antagonist G-15, the ERRα inverse agonist XCT790 or the ERRß/ERRγ agonist DY131. Next-generation sequencing (RNA-Seq) was used to evaluate gene expression. Bioinformatic analysis of read abundance revealed that 50, 86 and 171 transcripts were differentially expressed in the G-15-, XCT790- and DY131-treated groups respectively compared with the control group. Annotated genes and their protein products were categorised regarding their associated biological processes and molecular functions. In the XCT790-treated group, genes involved in immunological processes were upregulated. In the DY131-treated group, genes with increased expression were primarily engaged in protein modification (protein folding and small protein conjugation). In addition, the expression of genes recognised as oncogenes, such as BMI1 proto-oncogene, polycomb ring finger (Bmi1) and nucleophosphin 1 (Npm1), was significantly increased in all experimental groups. This study provides detailed information regarding the genetic changes in the testicular transcriptome of the mouse in response to modulation of non-canonical oestrogen receptor activity.

Molecular machinery providing copper bioavailability for spermatozoa along the epididymial tubule in mouse.

Progressive functional maturation of spermatozoa is completed during the transit of these cells through the epididymis, a tubule structure connecting a testicle to a vas deferens. Epididymal epithelial cells by means of their secretory and absorptive functions determine a highly specialized luminal microenvironment containing multiple organic and inorganic components. The latter include copper ions, which due to their redox properties are indispensable for critical homeostatic processes occurring in spermatozoa floating in different part of epididymis but can be potentially toxic. Main purpose of our study was to determine epididymal region-dependent expression and localization of copper transporters ensuring a tight control of copper concentration in epididymal fluid. We also aimed at identifying proteins responsible for copper uptake by spermatozoa and verifying whether this process is coordinated with copper supply to superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), a copper-dependent antioxidant enzyme. Our study identifies two ATPases-ATP7A, ATP7B and Slc31a1, major copper importers/exporters depending on their differential expression on epididymal polarized epithelial cells of the caput, corpus, and cauda. Next, ceruloplasmin seems to be a chief protein transporting copper in the epididymal fluid and providing this biometal to spermatozoa. The entry of copper to germ cells is mediated by Slc31a1 and is correlated with both expressions of copper chaperone for superoxide dismutase (CCS), copper chaperone directly providing copper ions to SOD1 and with the expression and activity of the latter. Our results outline a network of cooperating copper binding proteins expressed in epididymal epithelium and in spermatozoa that orchestrate bioavailability of this microelement for gametes and protect them against copper toxicity.

Array CGH in patients with developmental delay or intellectual disability: are there phenotypic clues to pathogenic copy number variants?

Array comparative genomic hybridization (array CGH) is now widely adopted as a first-tier clinical diagnostic test in individuals with unexplained developmental delay/intellectual disability (DD/ID) and congenital anomalies. Our study aimed at enlarging the phenotypic spectrum associated with clinically relevant copy number variants (CNVs) as well as delineating clinical criteria, which may help separating patients with pathogenic CNVs from those without pathogenic CNVs. We performed a retrospective review of clinical and array CGH data of 342 children with unexplained DD/ID. The phenotypic features of patients with clinically significant CNV were compared with those without pathogenic CNVs. Array CGH detected pathogenic CNVs in 13.2% of the patients. Congenital anomalies, especially heart defects, as well as primary microcephaly, short stature and failure to thrive were clearly more frequent in children with pathogenic CNVs compared with children with normal array CGH results. Thus, we assume that in patients with unexplained DD/ID, array CGH will more probably detect a significant CNV if any of these features is part of the patient's phenotype.

Ccdc33, a predominantly testis-expressed gene, encodes a putative peroxisomal protein.

Many genes crucial for male fertility are often predominantly or exclusively expressed in male germ cells. The analysis of mouse models has demonstrated the functional importance of peroxisomes in spermatogenesis. The CCDC33 protein has been reported to be a cancer/testis (CT) antigen. We found that mouse Ccdc33 is predominantly expressed in the testis and undergoes alternative splicing to produce at least 4 different transcripts. The protein encoded by Ccdc33 contains 3 coiled-coil domains, a C2-domain, 2 ER membrane retention signal-like motifs and 2 putative peroxisomal targeting signals type 2 (PTS2). We could demonstrate that the second PTS2 sequence is functional and responsible for the targeting of CCDC33 to peroxisomes. Moreover, in HeLa cells CCDC33-dsRED fusion protein co-localized with a known peroxisomal protein, namely PXT1, and showed punctuate intracellular distribution. Taken together, the mouse Ccdc33 encodes a putative peroxisomal protein and is predominantly expressed in male germ cells. The expression starts at the primary spermatocyte stage, suggesting an important role of this protein during spermatogenesis.

Targeted disruption of the mouse Npal3 gene leads to deficits in behavior, increased IgE levels, and impaired lung function.

The non-imprinted in Prader-Willi/Angelman syndrome (NIPA) proteins are highly conserved receptors or transporters. Translocation of NIPA genes were found in patients with Prader-Willi syndrome, and loss-of-function of the NIPA1 gene was identified in hereditary spastic paraplegia. The family of NIPA-like domain containing (NPAL) proteins is closely related to the NIPA proteins, but to date nothing is known about their function. Here, we could demonstrate that both human NPAL3 and mouse NPAL3 are ubiquitously expressed and encode highly conserved proteins. To further elucidate the function of the Npal3 gene, knockout (Npal3(-/-)) mice were generated. Intensive phenotypic analyses revealed that disruption of the Npal3 gene results in a pleiotropic phenotype. The function of the nervous system was impaired in both mutant males and females which could be demonstrated in behavioral tests. In addition, in NPAL3 mutants the number of NK cells was decreased and changes in IgM, IgG(2), and IgA were observed, indicating that the immune system is also affected. Interestingly, increased IgE levels as well as impaired lung functions were observed in mutant males but not in mutant females. It should be noted that the human Npal3 gene is located at 1p36.12-->p35.1, and atopic diseases were previously linked to this genomic region. Thus, the Npal3(-/-) mice could serve as a valuable model system for studying atopic diseases.

Proven germline mosaicism in a father of two children with CHARGE syndrome.

CHARGE syndrome is an autosomal dominant malformation syndrome caused by mutations in the CHD7 gene. The majority of cases are sporadic and only few familial cases have been reported. In these families, mosaicism in one parent, as well as parent- to-child transmission of a CHD7 mutation, has been described. In some further cases, germline mosaicism has been suggested. Here, we report the first case in which germline mosaicism could be demonstrated in a father of two affected children with CHARGE syndrome. The truncating mutation c.7302dupA in exon 34 of the CHD7 gene was found in both affected children but was not detected in parental lymphocytes. However, in DNA extracted from the father's spermatozoa, the c.7302dupA mutation could be identified. Furthermore, mutation analysis of DNA isolated from 59 single spermatozoa revealed that the c.7302dupA mutation occurs in 16 spermatozoa, confirming germline mosaicism in the father of the affected children. This result has a high impact for genetic counselling of the family and for their recurrence risk in further pregnancies.

PHF5A represents a bridge protein between splicing proteins and ATP-dependent helicases and is differentially expressed during mouse spermatogenesis.

PHF5A is a highly conserved protein from yeast to man, and based on studies in yeast, it was suggested that the homologous protein RDS3P in S. cerevisiae takes part in the organization of U2 snRNP particles. By using the yeast two-hybrid assay we could demonstrate that PHF5A interacted both with ATP-dependent helicases EP400 and DDX1 and with arginine-serine (RS)-rich domains of splicing factors U2AF1 and SFRS5 in mouse. Furthermore, domain interaction studies revealed that PHF5A interaction with EP400 and DDX1 is restricted to the N-terminal part of PHF5A, whereas the C-terminal region of PHF5A was found to be responsible for the association with U2AF1 and SFRS5. By using the yeast three-hybrid assay, we could further show that both EP400 and DDX1 interacted only indirectly with U2AF1 and SFRS5 proteins via the bridge protein PHF5A. The subcellular localization of a PHF5A-GFP fusion protein was predominantly observed in the nucleus and, in addition, PHF5A co-localized with both U2AF1 and SFRS5 proteins in nuclear speckles of NIH3T3 cells. Moreover, expression analyses demonstrated that PHF5A and U2AF1 gene expression coincided in spermatocytes during murine spermatogenesis and interaction between these proteins was also detectable in the spermatocyte-specific cell line GC-4spc by using in vivo co-immunoprecipitation studies. Taken together, our results indicate that PHF5A resembles a protein which interacts with splicing factors U2AF1 and SFRS5 and helicases EP400 and DDX1 and functions as a bridge protein between these proteins.

The putative peroxisomal gene Pxt1 is exclusively expressed in the testis.

Genes reported to be crucial for spermatogenesis are often exclusively expressed in the testis. We have identified a novel male germ cell-specific expressed gene named peroxisomal testis specific 1 (Pxt1) with expression starting at the spermatocyte stage during mouse spermatogenesis. The putative amino acid sequence encoded by the cDNA of the Pxt1 gene contains a conserved Asn-His-Leu (NHL)-motif at its C-terminal end, which is characteristic for peroxisomal proteins. Pxt1-EGFP fusion protein is co-localized with known peroxisomal marker proteins in transfected NIH3T3 cells. In addition, we could demonstrate that the peroxisomal targeting signal NHL is functional and responsible for the correct subcellular localization of the Pxt1-EGFP fusion protein. In male germ cells peroxisomes were reported only in spermatogonia. The Pxt1 gene is so far the first gene coding for a putative peroxisomal protein which is expressed in later steps of spermatogenesis, namely in pachytene spermatocytes.

Effect of 5-week moderate intensity endurance training on the oxidative stress, muscle specific uncoupling protein (UCP3) and superoxide dismutase (SOD2) contents in vastus lateralis of young, healthy men.

In the present study fifteen male subjects (age: 22.7 ± 0.5 years; BMI: 23.5 ± 0.6 kg x m⁻²; VO2(max) 46.0 ± 1.0 mL x kg⁻¹ x min⁻¹) performed 5 week moderate intensity endurance training. The training resulted in a significant increase in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2(max)) (P=0.048) and power output reached at VO2(max) (P=0.0001). No effect of training on the uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) content in the vastus lateralis was found (P>0.05). The improvement of physical capacity was accompanied by no changes in cytochrome-c and cytochrome-c oxidase contents in the vastus lateralis (P>0.05). However, the training resulted in an increase (P=0.02) in mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase (SOD2) content in this muscle. Moreover, a significant decrease (P=0.028) in plasma basal isoprostanes concentration [F2isoprostanes](pl) accompanied by a clear tendency to lower (P=0.08) gluthatione disulfide concentration [GSSG](pl) and tendency to higher (P=0.08) total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was observed after the training. We have concluded that as little as 5 weeks of moderate intensity endurance training is potent to improve physical capacity and antioxidant protection in humans. Surprisingly, these effects occur before any measurable changes in UCP3 protein content. We postulate that the training-induced improvement in the antioxidant protection at the muscle level is due to an increase in SOD2 content and that therefore, the role of UCP3 in the enhancement of physical capacity and antioxidant protection, at least in the early stage of training, is rather questionable.

Human cyritestin genes (CYRN1 and CYRN2) are non-functional.

The mouse cyritestin gene is a member of the ADAM (a disintegrin and metalloprotease) gene family and codes for a membrane-anchored sperm protein. Recently, it was shown that cyritestin is critical for male fertility in the mouse. Spermatozoa of cyritestin-deficient mice are not able to bind to the zona pellucida of the oocyte and therefore unable to fertilize the egg. However, zona-free oocytes can be fertilized and the resulting embryos show normal development. In contrast to the mouse, where only one gene for cyritestin (Cyrn) is reported, two cyritestin genes (CYRN1 and CYRN2) are known in humans. The human CYRN1 and CYRN2 genes are located on chromosomes 8 and 16, respectively. We report that 27% of fertile men are deficient for the CYRN1 gene but that all have a CYRN2 gene, suggesting that the CYRN2 gene is the orthologous mouse cyritestin gene in humans and might be involved in sperm-egg interactions. However, the characterization of CYRN2 transcripts from testicular RNA of CYRN1-deficient men demonstrated many termination codons in the synthesized cyritestin cDNA. Furthermore, Western-blot analysis with human testicular protein extracts using an anti-cyritestin antibody failed to detect any cyritestin protein. These results demonstrate clearly that both cyritestin genes are non-functional in humans.