The Role of Complement in Liver Injury, Regeneration, and Transplantation.

The liver is both an immunologically complex and a privileged organ. The innate immune system is a central player, in which the complement system emerges as a pivotal part of liver homeostasis, immune responses, and crosstalk with other effector systems in both innate and adaptive immunity. The liver produces the majority of the complement proteins and is the home of important immune cells such as Kupffer cells. Liver immune responses are delicately tuned between tolerance to many antigens flowing in from the alimentary tract, a tolerance that likely makes the liver less prone to rejection than other solid organ transplants, and reaction to local injury, systemic inflammation, and regeneration. Notably, complement is a double-edged sword as activation is detrimental by inducing inflammatory tissue damage in, for example, ischemia-reperfusion injury and transplant rejection yet is beneficial for liver tissue regeneration. Therapeutic complement inhibition is rapidly developing for routine clinical treatment of several diseases. In the liver, targeted inhibition of damaged tissue may be a rational and promising approach to avoid further tissue destruction and simultaneously preserve beneficial effects of complement in areas of proliferation. Here, we argue that complement is a key system to manipulate in the liver in several clinical settings, including liver injury and regeneration after major surgery and preservation of the organ during transplantation.

Properdin binding to complement activating surfaces depends on initial C3b deposition.

Two functions have been assigned to properdin; stabilization of the alternative convertase, C3bBb, is well accepted, whereas the role of properdin as pattern recognition molecule is controversial. The presence of nonphysiological aggregates in purified properdin preparations and experimental models that do not allow discrimination between the initial binding of properdin and binding secondary to C3b deposition is a critical factor contributing to this controversy. In previous work, by inhibiting C3, we showed that properdin binding to zymosan and Escherichia coli is not a primary event, but rather is solely dependent on initial C3 deposition. In the present study, we found that properdin in human serum bound dose-dependently to solid-phase myeloperoxidase. This binding was dependent on C3 activation, as demonstrated by the lack of binding in human serum with the C3-inhibitor compstatin Cp40, in C3-depleted human serum, or when purified properdin is applied in buffer. Similarly, binding of properdin to the surface of human umbilical vein endothelial cells or Neisseria meningitidis after incubation with human serum was completely C3-dependent, as detected by flow cytometry. Properdin, which lacks the structural homology shared by other complement pattern recognition molecules and has its major function in stabilizing the C3bBb convertase, was found to bind both exogenous and endogenous molecular patterns in a completely C3-dependent manner. We therefore challenge the view of properdin as a pattern recognition molecule, and argue that the experimental conditions used to test this hypothesis should be carefully considered, with emphasis on controlling initial C3 activation under physiological conditions.

The role of properdin in zymosan- and Escherichia coli-induced complement activation.

Properdin is well known as an enhancer of the alternative complement amplification loop when C3 is activated, whereas its role as a recognition molecule of exogenous pathogen-associated molecular patterns and initiator of complement activation is less understood. We therefore studied the role of properdin in activation of complement in normal human serum by zymosan and various Escherichia coli strains. In ELISA, microtiter plates coated with zymosan induced efficient complement activation with deposition of C4b and terminal complement complex on the solid phase. Virtually no deposition of C4b or terminal complement complex was observed with mannose-binding lectin (MBL)-deficient serum. Reconstitution with purified MBL showed distinct activation in both readouts. In ELISA, normal human serum-induced deposition of properdin by zymosan was abolished by the C3-inhibiting peptide compstatin. Flow cytometry was used to further explore whether properdin acts as an initial recognition molecule reacting directly with zymosan and three E. coli strains. Experiments reported by other authors were made with EGTA Mg²âº buffer, permitting autoactivation of C3. We found inhibition by compstatin on these substrates, indicating that properdin deposition depended on initial C3b deposition followed by properdin in a second step. Properdin released from human polymorphonuclear cells stimulated with PMA did not bind to zymosan or E. coli, but when incubated in properdin-depleted serum this form of properdin bound efficiently to both substrates in a strictly C3-dependent manner, as the binding was abolished by compstatin. Collectively, these data indicate that properdin in serum as well as polymorphonuclear-released properdin is unable to bind and initiate direct alternative pathway activation on these substrates.

Human genetic deficiencies reveal the roles of complement in the inflammatory network: lessons from nature.

Complement component C5 is crucial for experimental animal inflammatory tissue damage; however, its involvement in human inflammation is incompletely understood. The responses to gram-negative bacteria were here studied taking advantage of human genetic complement-deficiencies--nature's own knockouts--including a previously undescribed C5 defect. Such deficiencies provide a unique tool for investigating the biological role of proteins. The experimental conditions allowed cross-talk between the different inflammatory pathways using a whole blood model based on the anticoagulant lepirudin, which does not interfere with the complement system. Expression of tissue factor, cell adhesion molecules, and oxidative burst depended highly on C5, mediated through the activation product C5a, whereas granulocyte enzyme release relied mainly on C3 and was C5a-independent. Release of cytokines and chemokines was mediated to varying degrees by complement and CD14; for example, interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-8 were more dependent on complement than IFN-gamma and IL-6, which were highly dependent on CD14. IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) and IFN-gamma inducible protein 10 (IP-10) were fully dependent on CD14 and inversely regulated by complement, that is, complement deficiency and complement inhibition enhanced their release. Granulocyte responses were mainly complement-dependent, whereas monocyte responses were more dependent on CD14. Notably, all responses were abolished by combined neutralization of complement and CD14. The present study provides important insight into the comprehensive role of complement in human inflammatory responses to gram-negative bacteria.

Critical roles of complement and antibodies in host defense mechanisms against Neisseria meningitidis as revealed by human complement genetic deficiencies.

Certain complement defects are associated with an increased propensity to contract Neisseria meningitidis infections. We performed detailed analyses of complement-mediated defense mechanisms against N. meningitidis 44/76 with whole blood and serum from two adult patients who were completely C2 or C5 deficient. The C5-deficient patient and the matched control were also deficient in mannose-binding lectin (MBL). The proliferation of meningococci incubated in freshly drawn whole blood was estimated by CFU and quantitative DNA real-time PCR. The serum bactericidal activity and opsonophagocytic activity by granulocytes were investigated, including heat-inactivated postvaccination sera, to examine the influence of antimeningococcal antibodies. The meningococci proliferated equally in C2- and C5-deficient blood, with a 2 log(10) increase of CFU and 4- to 5-log(10) increase in DNA copies. Proliferation was modestly decreased in reconstituted C2-deficient and control blood. After reconstitution of C5-deficient blood, all meningococci were killed, which is consistent with high antibody titers being present. The opsonophagocytic activity was strictly C2 dependent, appeared with normal serum, and increased with postvaccination serum. Serum bactericidal activity was strictly dependent on C2, C5, and high antibody titers. MBL did not influence any of the parameters observed. Complement-mediated defense against meningococci was thus dependent on the classical pathway. Some opsonophagocytic activity occurred despite low levels of antimeningococcal antibodies but was more efficient with immune sera. Serum bactericidal activity was dependent on C2, C5, and immune sera. MBL did not influence any of the parameters observed.

Evidence for waning of latency in a cohort study of tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: To investigate how the risk of active tuberculosis disease is influenced by time since original infection and to determine whether the risk of reactivation of tuberculosis increases or decreases with age. METHODS: Cohort analysis of data for the separate ten year birth cohorts of 1876-1885 to 1959-1968 obtained from Statistics Norway and the National Tuberculosis Registry. These data were used to calculate the rates and the changes in the rates of bacillary (or active) tuberculosis. Data on bacillary tuberculosis for adult (20+) age groups were obtained from the National Tuberculosis Registry and Statistics Norway from 1946 to 1974. Most cases during this period arose due to reactivation of remote infection. Participants in this part of the analysis were all reported active tuberculosis cases in Norway from 1946 to 1974 as recorded in the National Tuberculosis Registry. RESULTS: Tuberculosis decreased at a relatively steady rate when following individual birth cohorts, but with a tendency of slower decline as time passed since infection. A mean estimate of this rate of decline was 57% in a 10 year period. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of reactivation of latent tuberculosis decreases with age. This decline may reflect the rate at which latent tuberculosis is eliminated from a population with minimal transmission of tubercle bacilli. A model for risk of developing active tuberculosis as a function of time since infection shows that the rate at which tuberculosis can be eliminated from a society can be quite substantial if new infections are effectively prevented. The findings clearly indicate that preventative measures against transmission of tuberculosis will be the most effective. These results also suggest that the total population harbouring live tubercle bacilli and consequently the future projection for increased incidence of tuberculosis in the world is probably overestimated.

Mechanisms of complement activation and effects of C1-inhibitor on the meconium-induced inflammatory reaction in human cord blood.

BACKGROUND: Meconium aspiration syndrome has a complex pathophysiology. Meconium activates the complement system and meconium-induced cytokine formation is differentially mediated by complement and CD14. C1-inhibitor (C1-INH) regulates complement and contact-system activation mainly by protease inhibition, but may reduce inflammation by other mechanisms as well. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to investigate the initial mechanisms of meconium-induced complement activation and to study the effect of C1-INH on the meconium-induced inflammatory reaction. METHODS: Human serum from five donors was preincubated with an anti-MBL monoclonal antibody and then incubated with meconium for 30 min at 37 degrees C. Human cord whole blood, anticoagulated with lepirudin, from six donors was preincubated with C1-INH and then incubated with meconium for 30 min and 4h at 37 degrees C. Complement activation products specific for the different pathways were measured by ELISAs: classical pathway C1rs/C1-INH complexes, classical and lectin pathway C4d, alternative pathway C3bBbP, and terminal pathway sC5b-9 complex (TCC). A Bio-Plex Array Reader was used to measure 27 inflammatory mediators. RESULTS: The anti-MBL monoclonal antibody significantly reduced meconium-induced formation of C4d by 63% (p=0.0159) and TCC by 27% (p=0.0079). C1-INH dose-dependently inhibited meconium-induced formation of C1rs/C1-INH complexes, C4d, C3bBbP, and TCC compared to albumin (p<0.002 for all). C1-INH induced a dose-dependent and substantial inhibition of meconium-induced formation of the proinflammatory cytokines TNFalpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6 and IFN-gamma (p<0.01 for all), the chemokines IL-8, MCP-1, MIP-1 alpha, MIP-1 beta, and eotaxin (p<0.02 for all), the growth factors G-CSF, GM-CSF, basic FGF, and PDGFbb (p<0.05 for all), and the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-1ra (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Meconium activated the lectin complement pathway as well as the alternative pathway. C1-INH efficiently reduced a broad spectrum of inflammatory mediators even at the lowest concentration. Administration of C1-INH may thus reduce the inflammatory response in MAS.

Challenges presented by nerve damage in leprosy.

The basis of nerve damage in leprosy is the unique tendency of Mycobacterium leprae to invade Schwann cells. alphaBeta-Dystroglycan on the basement membrane of Schwann cells binds to laminin alpha2, in turn binding to receptors on the M. leprae surface, comprising a histone-like protein and phenoglycolipid-1. When nerve damage during reversal reactions was found to be associated with an abrupt increase in delayed type hypersensitivity against M. leprae antigenic determinants released from Schwann cells, it suggested that the nerve is damaged as an innocent bystander during the immune response. This strongly influenced the introduction of therapy based on immunosuppression combined with continued anti-mycobacterial medication. Lysis of Schwann cells presenting M. leprae antigenic determinants by activated CD4+ T cells and interaction of M. leprae with Toll-like receptors on Schwann cells are additional mechanisms implicated in nerve damage. Persistence of M. leprae antigen in local lesions after regular multiple drug therapy (MDT) is an important risk factor for late reactions. In spite of significant advances in the provision of MDT globally, early diagnosis, together with effective treatment of the disease and associated nerve damage at initial presentation remains a major challenge for the health services. Reduced prevalence as a result of MDT should not be taken to indicate that the challenges of leprosy control are diminished as long as nerve damage is not controlled and new case detection rates are not declining.

T cell mediated immune responses in patients with tuberculous lymphadenitis from Butajira, southern Ethiopia.

The control of tuberculosis (TB) requires improved vaccines in addition to chemotherapy. It is essential to understand the immune response in tuberculosis to successfully evaluate potential vaccines. Current investigations have focused on immune responses in pulmonary forms. We studied the T-cell response of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from HIV-infected (n=8) and non-infected patients (n=19) with lymph node tuberculosis to PPD and short-term culture filtrates (ST-CF) of M. tuberculosis. PBMC from HIV-negative TB lymphadenitis patients proliferated in response to both antigens (p<0.001) and produced variably higher levels of IFN-gamma compared to healthy controls (p=0.02) (n=19) from the same area. Such responses were suppressed in HIV co-infected subjects. The results indicate that circulating PBMC in the apparently localized form of tuberculous lymphadenitis react to mycobacterial antigens in a similar pattern as those of patients with pulmonary disease.

Advances in assay of complement function and activation.

The main function of the complement system is pattern recognition of danger. Typical exogenous danger signals are pathogen associated molecular patterns inducing a protective inflammatory response. Other examples are exposure to foreign surfaces of biomedical materials including nanoparticles, which principally induce the same inflammatory response. If a surface is "foreign" to the host, it induces complement activation. Development of monoclonal antibodies to neoepitopes on complement activation products introduced an entirely new set of methods for assay of complement activation. Activation of complement by a surface occurs by impairment of the fine balance of the control system, e.g. by preferred binding of factor B at the expense of factor H. Sensitive methods to detect complement activation on surfaces and in the fluid phase are a prerequisite for investigation of the biocompatibility of artificial materials. This information can be used to develop new materials with enhanced biocompatibility. Here we review available methods to study human and animal complement function and activation in vitro and in vivo.

The down-stream effects of mannan-induced lectin complement pathway activation depend quantitatively on alternative pathway amplification.

Complement activation plays an important role in human pathophysiology. The effect of classical pathway activation is largely dependent on alternative pathway (AP) amplification, whereas the role of AP for the down-stream effect of mannan-induced lectin pathway (LP) activation is poorly understood. In normal human serum specific activation of LP was obtained after exposure to a wide concentration range of mannan on the solid phase. Reaction mechanisms in this system were delineated in inhibition experiments with monoclonal antibodies. Direct mannose-binding lectin (MBL) independent activation of AP was not observed even at high mannan concentrations since addition of the inhibiting anti-MBL mAb 3F8 completely abolished generation of the terminal C5b-9 complex (TCC). However, selective blockade of AP by anti-factor D inhibited more than 80% of TCC release into the fluid phase after LP activation showing that AP amplification is quantitatively responsible for the final effect of initial specific LP activation. TCC generation on the solid phase was distinctly but less inhibited by anti-fD. C2 bypass of the LP pathway could be demonstrated, and AP amplification was also essential during C2 bypass in LP as shown by complete inhibition of TCC generation in C2-deficient serum by anti-fD and anti-properdin antibodies. In conclusion, the down-stream effect of LP activation depends strongly on AP amplification in normal human serum and in the C2 bypass pathway.

The alternative complement pathway revisited.

Alternative pathway amplification plays a major role for the final effect of initial specific activation of the classical and lectin complement pathways, but the quantitative role of the amplification is insufficiently investigated. In experimental models of human diseases in which a direct activation of alternative pathway has been assumed, this interpretation needs revision placing a greater role on alternative amplification. We recently documented that the alternative amplification contributed to 80-90% of C5 activation when the initial activation was highly specific for the classical pathway. The recent identification of properdin as a recognition factor directly initiating alternative pathway activation, like C1q in the classical and mannose-binding lectin in the lectin pathway initiates a renewed interest in the reaction mechanisms of complement. Complement and Toll-like receptors, including the CD14 molecule, are two main upstream recognition systems of innate immunity, contributing to the inflammatory reaction in a number of conditions including ischemia-reperfusion injury and sepsis. These systems act as "double-edged swords", being protective against microbial invasion, but harmful to the host when activated improperly or uncontrolled. Combined inhibition of complement and Toll-like receptors/CD14 should be explored as a treatment regimen to reduce the overwhelming damaging inflammatory response during sepsis. The alternative pathway should be particularly considered in this regard, due to its uncontrolled amplification in sepsis. The alternative pathway should be regarded as a dual system, namely a recognition pathway principally similar to the classical and lectin pathways, and an amplification mechanism, well known, but quantitatively probably more important than generally recognized.

Specificity of subcapsular antibody responses in Ethiopian patients following disease caused by serogroup A meningococci.

Dissecting the specificities of human antibody responses following disease caused by serogroup A meningococci may be important for the development of improved vaccines. We performed a study of Ethiopian patients during outbreaks in 2002 and 2003. Sera were obtained from 71 patients with meningitis caused by bacteria of sequence type 7, as confirmed by PCR or culture, and from 113 Ethiopian controls. Antibody specificities were analyzed by immunoblotting (IB) against outer membrane antigen extracts of a reference strain and of the patients' own isolates and by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels against lipooligosaccharide (LOS) L11 and the proteins NadA and NspA. IB revealed that the main antigens targeted were the proteins PorA, PorB, RmpM, and Opa/OpcA, as well as LOS. MenA disease induced significant increases in IgG against LOS L11 and NadA. The IgG levels against LOS remained elevated following disease, whereas the IgG anti-NadA levels returned to acute-phase levels in the late convalescent phase. Among adults, the anti-LOS IgG levels were similar in acute-phase patient sera as in control sera, whereas anti-NadA IgG levels were significantly higher in acute-phase sera than in controls. The IgG antibody levels against LOS and NadA correlated moderately but significantly with serum bactericidal activity against MenA strains. Future studies on immune response during MenA disease should take into account the high levels of anti-MenA polysaccharide IgG commonly found in the population and seek to clarify the role of antibodies against subcapsular antigens in protection against MenA disease.

Serum antibody responses in Ethiopian meningitis patients infected with Neisseria meningitidis serogroup A sequence type 7.

To elucidate critical components of protective immune responses induced during the natural course of serogroup A meningococcal disease, we studied acute-, early-convalescent-, and late-convalescent-phase sera from Ethiopian patients during outbreaks in 2002 to 2003. Sera were obtained from laboratory-confirmed patients positive for serogroup A sequence type 7 (ST-7) meningococci (A:4/21:P1.20,9) (n = 71) and from Ethiopian controls (n = 113). The sera were analyzed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to measure levels of immunoglobulin G (IgG) against serogroup A polysaccharide (APS) and outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) and for serum bactericidal activity (SBA) using both rabbit and human complement sources. Despite relatively high SBA titers and high levels of IgG against APS and OMVs in acute-phase patient sera, significant increases were seen in the early convalescent phase. Antibody concentrations returned to acute-phase levels in the late convalescent phase. Considering all patients' sera, a significant but low correlation (r = 0.46) was observed between SBA with rabbit complement (rSBA) using an ST-5 reference strain and SBA with human complement (hSBA) using an ST-7 strain from Ethiopia. While rSBA demonstrated a significant linear relation with IgG against APS, hSBA demonstrated significant linear relationships with IgG against both APS and OMV. This study indicates that antibodies against both outer membrane proteins and APS may be important in providing the protection induced during disease, as measured by hSBA. Therefore, outer membrane proteins could also have a role as components of future meningococcal vaccines for the African meningitis belt.

Characterization of Neisseria meningitidis isolates from recent outbreaks in Ethiopia and comparison with those recovered during the epidemic of 1988 to 1989.

The objectives of this study were to collect and characterize epidemic meningococcal isolates from Ethiopia from 2002 to 2003 and to compare them to 21 strains recovered during the previous large epidemic of 1988 to 1989. Ninety-five patients in all age groups with clinical signs of meningitis and a turbid cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) sample were included in the study of isolates from 2002 to 2003. Seventy-one patients (74.7%) were confirmed as having Neisseria meningitidis either by culture (n = 40) or by porA PCR (n = 31) of their CSF. The overall case fatality rate (CFR) was 11.6%; the N. meningitidis-specific CFR was 4.2%. All 40 strains were fully susceptible to all antibiotics tested except sulfonamide, were serotyped as A:4/21:P1.20,9, and belonged to sequence type 7 (ST-7). The strains from 1988 to 1989 were also equally susceptible and were characterized as A:4/21:P1.20,9, but they belonged to ST-5. Antigenic characterization of the strains revealed differences in the repertoire of lipooligosaccharides and Opa proteins between the old and the recent strains. PCR analysis of the nine lgt genes revealed the presence of the lgtAHFG genes in both old and recent strains; lgtB was present in only some of the strains, but no correlation with sequence type was observed. Further analysis showed that in addition to their pgm alleles, the Ethiopian ST-5 and ST-7 strains also differed in their tbpB, opa, fetA, and lgtA genes. The occurrence of new antigenic structures in strains sharing the same serogroup, PorA, and PorB may help explain the replacement of ST-5 by ST-7 in the African meningitis belt.

Improved cellular and humoral immune responses against Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens after intramuscular DNA immunisation combined with muscle electroporation.

New delivery methods are needed to improve the efficiency of existing DNA vaccines. We have measured the immune response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens following intramuscular DNA injection in combination with or without electroporation. Three to 6-fold increase in the number of antigen specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, measured by IFN-gamma-producing cells in an ELISPOT assay, was found in mice DNA injected and electroporated compared with non-electroporated mice. Similarly, 5 to 10-fold increase in antigen specific IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b antibodies were found in an immunoglobulin subclass specific ELISA. A 100-fold reduction in DNA dose could be used without loss of efficiency when immunisation was combined with electroporation. A single injection of 1 microg of antigen 85b (ag85b) plasmid DNA was sufficient to elicit a higher and long lasting level of IgG2a antibodies against antigen 85B (Ag85B) compared to standard BCG vaccination. We conclude that DNA immunisation in combination with electroporation can significantly improve the immunogenicity of plasmid-based DNA vaccines.

Predicted molecular structure of the mammalian cell entry protein Mce1A of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

The proposed role of the mammalian cell entry protein 1A (Mce1A) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is to facilitate invasion of host cells. The structure of Mce1A was modelled on the basis of the crystal structure of Colicin N of Escherichia coli by fold prediction and threading. Mce1A, as the model predicts, is an alpha/beta protein consisting of two major (alpha and beta) domains, connected by a long alpha helix. The model further revealed that the protein contains 12 helices, 9 strands, and 1 turn. The final model of Mce1A was verified through the program VERIFY 3D and more than 90% of the residues were in the favourable region. A mouse monoclonal antibody, TB1-5 76C, is directed to an epitope within a 60-mer peptide that has been shown to promote uptake of bacteria in mammalian cells. We show here that the epitope could be narrowed down to a core of 4 amino acids, TPKD. Upstream flanking residues, KRR also contributed to binding. Mce2A does not promote uptake in mammalian cells and sequence comparison of Mce1A and Mce2A indicates that the epitope mediates uptake. The epitope was located at the surface of the Mce1A model at the distal beta strand-loop region in the beta domain. The localization of this epitope in the model confirms its potential role in promoting uptake of M. tuberculosis in host cells.

Identification of the causative organism of tuberculous lymphadenitis in ethiopia by PCR.

UNLABELLED: Tuberculous lymphadenitis (TBLN) is a common form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis with multiple differential diagnoses. Demonstration of the etiologic agent by smear microscopy or culture of fine needle aspirate (FNA) specimens is often unsuccessful. FNA specimens from 40 patients presenting at a rural health center in South Ethiopia and diagnosed as positive for TBLN on the basis of clinical and cytological criteria were analyzed for mycobacterial DNA by PCR. Thirty (75%) had cervical lymphadenitis and 11 (27.5%) were seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Three primer sets were initially used to identify the causative agent at the genus (antigen 85 complex), complex (IS6110 insertion sequence), and species (pncA gene and allelic variation) levels. Among the forty TBLN cases, 35 (87.5%) were positive by PCR at the genus and complex levels. Based on PCR for detection of allelic variation at position 169, 24 (68.6%) of the 35 were positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis and 6 (17.1%) were positive for M. bovis. These six were positive in additional PCR assays using the JB21-JB22 primer set, which is highly specific for M. bovis. Five (14.1%) showed amplification for both M. tuberculosis and M. bovis with the allele-specific primer set. Cooccurrence of pyrazinamide (PZA)-sensitive and -resistant M. tuberculosis in those five cases was indicated, since all were negative in assays with the JB21-JB22 primer set. This feature was seen in 3 of 11 HIV-positive and 2 of 29 HIV-negative individuals (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: among 35 PCR-positive cases of TBLN from southern Ethiopia, 29 (82.9%) were caused by M. tuberculosis and six (17.1%) were caused by M. bovis.