Pre-diagnostic colonoscopies reduce cancer mortality - results from linked population-based data in South Australia.

BACKGROUND: To investigate the association between pre-diagnostic colonoscopy and colorectal cancer mortality in South Australia. METHODS: Colonoscopy histories were obtained for colorectal cancer patients diagnosed in 2003-2013 using linked Medical Benefits Schedule (MBS) claims, hospital-inpatient and cancer-registry data. Colonoscopy histories included the year of colonoscopy, numbers of examinations, and the time from first colonoscopy to diagnosis. Histories of multiple exposures to colonoscopies, and exposures of greater than a year from initial colonoscopy to diagnosis, were regarded as indicators of screening or surveillance activity. Colonoscopies occurring within one year of diagnosis were regarded as more likely to be a response to cancer symptoms than those occurring > 1 year before diagnosis. Associations between colonoscopy history and post-diagnostic survival were analysed using sub-hazard ratios (SHRs) from competing risk regression adjusted for socio-demographic and cancer characteristics. RESULTS: Having pre-diagnostic colonoscopy was associated with an unadjusted reduction in risk of colorectal cancer death of 17% (SHR: 0.83, 95% CI 0.78-0.89). After adjusting for time period and sociodemographic characteristics, the risk of colorectal cancer death reduced by 17% for one pre-diagnostic colonoscopy examination; 27% for two pre-diagnostic colonoscopy examinations; and 45% for three or more pre-diagnostic colonoscopy examinations. Those with a time of over one year from first colonoscopy in the study window to diagnosis, when compared with less than one year, had a 17% lower risk of colorectal cancer death in this adjusted analysis. These reductions were substantially reduced or eliminated when also adjusting for less advanced stage. CONCLUSIONS: Pre-diagnostic colonoscopy, and more so, multiple colonoscopies and first colonoscopy occurring over one year from initial colonoscopy to diagnosis, were associated with longer survival post diagnosis. This was largely explained by less advanced cancer stage at the time of diagnosis.

Are nurses meeting the needs of men in primary care?

Meeting men's health needs by improving healthcare service access is a key objective of comprehensive primary health care. The aims of this qualitative study were to explore the perception of nurses in men's health services and to describe men's expectation of the nurse. The comparative component identifies the barriers and facilitators to improved access to health services. A purposive sample of 19 nurses and 20 men was recruited from metropolitan and regional settings in the state of Victoria, Australia, and each participant was interviewed individually or as part of three focus groups. The main findings were: nurses and men were unclear on the role of the nurse in men's health; and health promotion provided by nurses was predominantly opportunistic. Both participant groups indicated barriers to healthcare access related to: the culture and environment in general practice; limitation of Australia's Medicare healthcare financing system; out-of-pocket costs, waiting time and lack of extended hours; and men not wanting to be perceived as complainers. Facilitators related to: positive inter-professional relations; effective communication; personal qualities; and level of preparedness of nurse education. The findings demonstrate a need for the role to be better understood by both men and nurses in order to develop alternative approaches to meeting men's healthcare needs.

The correlates of chronic disease-related health literacy and its components among men: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Chronic diseases drive the burden of disease in many societies, particularly among men. Lifestyle behaviours are strongly associated with chronic disease development, and in a number of countries men tend to engage in more risky behaviours, and have lower health knowledge and attention to prevention, than women. This study investigated the correlates of men's health literacy and its components about major lifestyle-related diseases, namely ischaemic heart disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus, to gain evidence to guide the development of policy and programs to improve men's health. METHODS: A systematic review was undertaken of observational studies that investigated men's health literacy and its components related to ischaemic heart disease or type 2 diabetes mellitus, and their associated risk factors. The Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Embase and the Cochrane Library databases were searched for articles published since 2003. The strength of the evidence was rated using the GRADE approach. RESULTS: After screening and review of 504 articles, the search elicited nine studies for inclusion: only one study examined health literacy (nutrition literacy). The majority of included studies focused on only one component of health literacy, namely knowledge (n = 7) and personal skills (confidence) (n = 1). Twenty correlates were identified, primarily relating to the knowledge component, with the strength of the evidence for only one correlate, education, graded as being of moderate quality. The evidence for all other correlates was graded as being of low quality. CONCLUSIONS: The limited body of research identified may have resulted from a lack of consensus about the definition of health literacy, and a concordant set of validated health literacy measures. Despite these limitations, broadening the search to include components of health literacy has identified that several factors are associated with men's knowledge and awareness of ischaemic heart disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus that will assist in the development of men's health promotion strategies. However, addressing the broader knowledge gaps and controversy in the health literacy field will deliver policy and program benefits to address these major contributors to the burden of disease among men.

"Men's health--a little in the shadow": a formative evaluation of medical curriculum enhancement with men's health teaching and learning.

BACKGROUND: Enhancing a medical school curriculum with new men's health teaching and learning requires an understanding of the local capacity and the facilitators and barriers to implementing new content, and an approach that accommodates the systemic and cultural differences between medical schools. METHODS: A formative evaluation was undertaken to determine the perspectives of key informants (academics, curriculum developers) from four Australian medical schools about the strategies needed to enhance their curriculum with men's health teaching and learning. Through semi-structured questioning with 17 key informants, interviewees also described the contextual barriers and facilitators to incorporating new topic areas into existing curriculum. Interviews were recorded with consent, transcribed verbatim, and analysed by two researchers to identify key themes. RESULTS: Interviewees were enthusiastic about incorporating men's health content through a men's health curriculum framework but highlighted the need for systems to assist in identifying gaps in their current curriculum where the men's health topics could be integrated. The student experience was identified as a key driver for men's health teaching and learning. Furthermore, core men's health clinical outcomes needed to be defined and topic areas vertically integrated across the curricula. This would ensure that students were appropriately equipped with the skills and knowledge for subsequent clinical practice in a range of geographical settings. Interviewees consistently suggested that the best implementation strategy is to have someone 'on the ground' to work directly with medical school staff and champion the men's health discipline. Providing mechanisms for sharing knowledge and resources across medical schools was highlighted to facilitate implementation, particularly for those medical schools with limited men's health teaching resources. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the unanimous support for men's health teaching and learning, the evaluation highlighted that the student experience must be recognised as paramount when integrating new topic areas into an already packed curriculum. A community of practice, where medical schools share relevant resources and knowledge, could help to ensure a commonality of student experience with respect to men's health learning in medical schools across different geographical settings and with different levels of resourcing. Such an approach could also be adapted to other areas of curriculum enhancement.

Healthy aging in a cross-sectional study of Australian men: what has sex got to do with it?

AIM: To identify lifestyle factors associated with healthy aging in middle-aged and older Australian men. METHODS: A cross-sectional, population-based, computer-assisted telephone interview study explored self-reported health outcomes, and associated determinants for general and reproductive health (the Men in Australia Telephone Survey) in men aged 40 years and older (n = 5990). "Good health" was defined by self-reported health (excellent/very good) combined with absence of self-reported high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, diabetes and depression symptoms. Categories of sexual activity frequency in the previous four weeks ranged from zero to 12+ times. RESULTS: "Good health" declined with increasing age with 17% of men over 70 years reporting "good health". In multivariable logistic regression models, significant inverse associations were found between modifiable lifestyle factors - both underweight and overweight/obesity, physical inactivity, smoking and high alcohol consumption - and "good health". Low-risk alcohol intake and living with a partner were positively associated with "good health". Sexual activity was also positively associated with "good health" (p < 0.001) with elevated odds ratios (ORs) for each category of frequency of sexual activity (1-4, 5-8, 9-12 or 12+ times in the past 4 weeks) relative to zero frequency (ORs 1.68 to 2.16). CONCLUSION: This study suggests that sexual activity is an important correlate of retaining good health in middle- and older-aged men, independent of other behavioral determinants.

Evaluation of the pilot phase of an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Male Health Module.

This article evaluates the pilot phase of an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Male Health Module. Although men experience higher levels of illness and die younger than women, educational programs to support health workers utilise a gender-based approach to increase participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males in health care are rare and lack appropriate content. Recognising this gap in service provision, and under the guidance of a Reference Group comprising community leaders in Aboriginal and Torres Strait male health, a comprehensive and culturally appropriate Male Health Module has been developed to enhance the capacity of health workers to improve access to services for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males. Methods used were: in-depth interviews with Module developers, pilot workshops for trainers and health workers, questionnaires and focus group discussions with workshop participants, and participant observations. As well as enhancing capacity to facilitate access to health services for men, the Module was deemed relevant because of its potential to promote health worker empowerment and wellbeing. Findings revealed that improving access to services for men required male and female health workers working in partnership. Despite overall enthusiasm for the Module, the findings also revealed deep fear that it would end up 'collecting dust on shelves'. Strategies to improve the Module quality and accessibility are highlighted.

Male reproductive health disorders among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men: a hidden problem?

OBJECTIVE: To better understand help-seeking behaviours and reproductive health disorders among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: A cross-sectional mixed-methods study conducted from 1 May 2004 to 30 April 2005 of 293 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men aged 18 years and over from urban, rural and remote communities in the Northern Territory and Queensland. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Subscale of the International Index of Erectile Function, self-reported help-seeking behaviours for erectile dysfunction (ED) and prostate disease, thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews and focus groups. RESULTS: The prevalence of moderate-to-severe ED increased across age groups, from about 10% in younger men (under 35 years) to 28% in men aged 55-74 years. Moderate-to-severe ED was strongly associated with reporting a chronic condition (odds ratio [OR], 3.67) and residing in a remote area (OR, 2.94). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men aged 40-59 years showed similar low levels of help-seeking behaviours compared with non-Indigenous men from a comparable population-based study. About half of the men with ED saw a doctor or received treatment for ED in each population. While prostate cancer rates were low in both studies, testing for prostate problems was less frequent in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men (11.4%) than in non-Indigenous men (34.1%, P < 0.001), despite similar levels of concern about prostate cancer. Barriers to help-seeking included shame, culturally inappropriate services and lack of awareness. CONCLUSION: This study, the first to investigate reproductive health of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men, found low levels of help-seeking behaviours for reproductive health disorders, with implications for missing a predictor of chronic disease and late diagnosis of prostate disease.

Assessing the impact of the 2018 National Health and Medical Research Council polyp surveillance guidelines on compliance with surveillance intervals at two public hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Several studies have highlighted poor compliance with surveillance colonoscopy guidelines. The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) guidelines were revised in 2018 and were more complex than the previous iteration (2011). The aim of this study was to determine the impact of 2018 NHMRC polyp surveillance guidelines on compliance with colonoscopy surveillance intervals. METHODS: A multicentre retrospective clinical audit was conducted between January 2020 and February 2021. Patients awaiting a colonoscopy for polyp surveillance at two public tertiary care hospitals in South Australia were included. Compliance rates of recommended polyp surveillance colonoscopy intervals after implementation of 2018 NHMRC guidelines were compared with 2011 NHMRC guidelines. The projected impact on colonoscopy bookings of the change in guideline intervals was modelled to 5 and 10 years, factoring in differences in compliance. RESULTS: Of 3996 patients awaiting colonoscopy services at two public hospitals in South Australia, 1984 patients (60% male, median age 61 years) were waitlisted for polyp surveillance. Overall compliance with surveillance guidelines was >60%. Implementation of the 2018 NHMRC guidelines significantly reduced compliance from 65.8% (2011 guidelines) to 50.8% (2018) (χ2 <0.001, OR 0.5). Modelling projections to 5 and 10 years demonstrated that application of the 2018 guidelines significantly increases the projected number of colonoscopy bookings per year. CONCLUSION: The revised 2018 NHMRC guidelines have resulted in significantly poorer compliance post-implementation, possibly due to their increased complexity. This has potential to increase the surveillance colonoscopy waiting list burden.

General practice perspectives on a bowel cancer screening quality improvement intervention using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research.

INTRODUCTION: An understanding of contextual factors that influence whether general practitioners advise their patients to be screened for colorectal cancer (CRC) might guide interventions to increase screening participation from its persistently low rate. We report on the use of a theory-based tool to explore contextual factors that might influence implementation of a novel quality improvement (QI) intervention to increase CRC screening in general practice (CRC-QI). The objective was to identify and incorporate strategies into the intervention that will enable flexible implementation across different practice settings. STUDY TYPE: A qualitative study to explore contextual facilitators of, and barriers to, the implementation of a novel CRC-QI intervention. METHODS: Eighteen staff, from three self-nominated general practices, participated in focus group discussions. The Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR), which included constructs relevant to CRC screening in primary care, guided the formative evaluation. Findings were aligned to the CFIR model using a deductive thematic analysis. RESULTS: Contextual facilitators of, and barriers to, the implementation of the CRC-QI intervention were identified in each CFIR domain and CRC-relevant construct. Five consistent themes were identified that potentially influence elements of the CRC-QI intervention: priority setting and incentives, information technology, patient-level barriers, clinical practice, and the National Bowel Cancer Screening Program (NBCSP). Participants proposed that incentive payments and NBCSP policy changes (outer-setting strategies) would facilitate organisational change (inner-setting strategies) and the effective implementation of the CRC-QI intervention. CONCLUSION: There may be an opportunity to better engage general practice in CRC screening via outer-setting constructs that support existing clinical practice. For example, improvements to the National Cancer Screening Register and Quality Improvement Incentive - Practice Incentives Program (PIP) could be made without altering the NBCSP design.

Determinants of male reproductive health disorders: the Men in Australia Telephone Survey (MATeS).

BACKGROUND: The relationship between reproductive health disorders and lifestyle factors in middle-aged and older men is not clear. The aim of this study is to describe lifestyle and biomedical associations as possible causes of erectile dysfunction (ED), prostate disease (PD), lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and perceived symptoms of androgen deficiency (pAD) in a representative population of middle-aged and older men, using the Men in Australia Telephone Survey (MATeS). METHODS: A representative sample (n = 5990) of men aged 40+ years, stratified by age and State, was contacted by random selection of households, with an individual response rate of 78%. All men participated in a 20-minute computer-assisted telephone interview exploring general and reproductive health. Associations between male reproductive health disorders and lifestyle and biomedical factors were analysed using multivariate logistic regression (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]). Variables studied included age, body mass index, waist circumference, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, co-morbid disease and medication use for hypertension, high cholesterol and symptoms of depression. RESULTS: Controlling for age and a range of lifestyle and co-morbid exposures, sedentary lifestyle and being underweight was associated with an increased likelihood of ED (1.4 [1.1-1.8]; 2.9 [1.5-5.8], respectively) and pAD (1.3 [1.1-1.7]; 2.7 [1.4-5.0], respectively. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease were both associated with ED, with hypertension strongly associated with LUTS and pAD. Current smoking (inverse association) and depressive symptomatology were the only variables independently associated with PD. All reproductive disorders showed consistent associations with depression (measured either by depressive symptomatology or medication use) in both age-adjusted and multivariate analyses. CONCLUSION: A range of lifestyle factors, more often associated with chronic disease, were significantly associated with male reproductive health disorders. Education strategies directed to improving general health may also confer benefits to male reproductive health.

'Male friendly' services.

It is generally agreed that general practices tend to be 'female oriented'. As part of a strategy to reduce barriers for men accessing health care, the Australian Government's proposed National Men's Health Policy has stated that a focus on 'male friendly' settings will be adopted.

A systematic scoping review of determinants of multidisciplinary cancer team access and decision-making in the management of older patients diagnosed with colorectal cancer.

Early diagnosis of colorectal cancer (CRC) and access to optimal treatment achieves optimal cancer outcomes. However, CRC survival inequalities persist with a lower survival rate for older patients (≥65 years). Although the reasons for poorer cancer survival in older people are complex, evidence suggests that these patients are less likely to receive best practice care as indicated by access to multidisciplinary team (MDT) care. Three electronic databases were systematically searched to examine factors that affect access to, and clinical decision-making, in the context of MDT care of older people with CRC. We included studies reporting empirical data relating to predictors for a patient's case being discussed at a MDT meeting and/or factors that impact treatment decision-making during the meeting. From 303 returned titles and abstracts, eighteen articles were reviewed. Eight studies specifically selected older patients, with eligibility criteria varying from ≥65 to ≥80 years. Five articles explored predictors of MDT access, with all articles identifying age as a negative, and advanced stage as a positive predictor of MDT discussion. Fourteen studies explored factors that influenced the MDT decision-making process, with older age and presence of comorbid disease negatively influencing treatment decisions (cases less often discussed and/or treatment not recommended). A few studies identified access to a MDT discussion as an independent predictor for CRC treatment. Access to the MDT process for older patients with a CRC diagnosis should be based on relevant geriatric domains rather than on chronological age alone, which is expected to allow more appropriate clinical decision-making and reduce treatment inequities for older patients with cancer.

Improving Australian National Bowel Cancer Screening Program outcomes through increased participation and cost-effective investment.

BACKGROUND: The Australian National Bowel Cancer Screening Program (NBCSP) provides biennial immunochemical faecal occult blood test (iFOBT) screening for people aged 50-74 years. Previous work has quantified the number of colorectal cancer (CRC) deaths prevented by the NBCSP and has shown that it is cost-effective. With a 40% screening participation rate, the NBCSP is currently underutilised and could be improved by increasing program participation, but the maximum appropriate level of spending on effective interventions to increase adherence has not yet been quantified. OBJECTIVES: To estimate (i) reductions in CRC cases and deaths for 2020-2040 attributable to, and (ii) the threshold for cost-effective investment (TCEI) in, effective future interventions to improve participation in the NBCSP. METHODS: A comprehensive microsimulation model, Policy1-Bowel, was used to simulate CRC natural history and screening in Australia, considering currently reported NBCSP adherence rates, i.e. iFOBT participation (∼40%) and diagnostic colonoscopy assessment rates (∼70%). Australian residents aged 40-74 were modelled. We evaluated three scenarios: (1) diagnostic colonoscopy assessment increasing to 90%; (2) iFOBT screening participation increasing to 60% by 2020, 70% by 2030 with diagnostic assessment rates of 90%; and (3) iFOBT screening increasing to 90% by 2020 with diagnostic assessment rates of 90%. In each scenario, we estimated CRC incidence and mortality, colonoscopies, costs, and TCEI given indicative willingness-to-pay thresholds of AUD$10,000-$30,000/LYS. RESULTS: By 2040, age-standardised CRC incidence and mortality rates could be reduced from 46.2 and 13.5 per 100,000 persons, respectively, if current participation rates continued, to (1) 44.0 and 12.7, (2) 36.8 and 8.8, and (3) 31.9 and 6.5. In Scenario 2, 23,000 lives would be saved from 2020-2040 vs current participation rates. The estimated scenario-specific TCEI (Australian dollars or AUD$/year) to invest in interventions to increase participation, given a conservative willingness-to-pay threshold of AUD$10,000/LYS, was (1) AUD$14.9M, (2) AUD$72.0M, and (3) AUD$76.5M. CONCLUSION: Significant investment in evidence-based interventions could be used to improve NBCSP adherence and help realise the program's potential. Such interventions might include mass media campaigns to increase program participation, educational or awareness interventions for practitioners, and/or interventions resulting in improvements in referral pathways. Any set of interventions which achieves at least 70% iFOBT screening participation and a 90% diagnostic assessment rate while costing under AUD$72 million annually would be highly cost-effective (

From participation to diagnostic assessment: a systematic scoping review of the role of the primary healthcare sector in the National Bowel Cancer Screening Program.

Primary health care (PHC) plays a vital support role in organised colorectal cancer (CRC) screening programs by encouraging patient participation and ensuring timely referral for diagnostic assessment follow up. A systematic scoping review of the current evidence was conducted to inform strategies that better engage the PHC sector in organised CRC screening programs. Articles published from 2005 to November 2019 were searched across five databases. Evidence was synthesised and interventions that specifically require PHC involvement were mapped to stages of the CRC screening pathway. Fifty-seven unique studies were identified in which patient, provider and system-level interventions align with defined stages of the CRC screening pathway: namely, identifying/reminding patients who have not responded to CRC screening (non-adherence) (n=46) and follow up of a positive screen referral (n=11). Self-management support initiatives (patient level) and improvement initiatives (system level) demonstrate consistent benefits along the CRC screening pathway. Interventions evaluated as part of a quality-improvement process tended to report effectiveness; however, the variation in reporting makes it difficult to determine which elements contributed to the overall study outcomes. To maximise the benefits of population-based screening programs, better integration into existing primary care services can be achieved through targeting preventive and quality care interventions along the entire screening pathway.

Engagement of General Practice in an Australian Organised Bowel Cancer Screening Program: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Knowledge and Practice.

BACKGROUND: Understanding factors causing variation in family physicians/general practitioners (GPs) screening knowledge, understanding and support of organised population-based colorectal cancer (CRC) programs can direct interventions that maximise the influence of a CRC screening recommendation from a GP. This study aims to assess contextual factors that influence knowledge and quality improvement (QI) practice directed to CRC screening in Australian general practice. METHODS: A convenience sample of anonymous general practice staff from all Australian states and territories completed a web-based survey. Multivariate analyses assessed the association between CRC screening knowledge and QI-CRC practice scores and patient, organisational and environmental-level contextual factors.  Results: Of 1,013 survey starts, 918 respondents (90.6%) completed the survey. Respondents less likely to recommend FOBT screening had lower knowledge and QI practice scores directed to CRC screening. Controlling for individual and practice characteristics, respondents' rating of the Australian National Bowel Cancer Screening Program (NBCSP) support for preventive care, attending external education, and sufficient practice resources to implement QI practice (generally) were the strongest factors associated with QI practice directed towards CRC screening. Knowledge scores were less amenable to the influence of contextual factors explored. CONCLUSION: More active engagement of family medicine/general practice to improve screening promotion could be achieved through better QI resourcing without changing the fundamental design of population-based CRC screening programs.

Pathways to a cancer-free future: a protocol for modelled evaluations to minimise the future burden of colorectal cancer in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: With almost 50% of cases preventable and the Australian National Bowel Cancer Screening Program in place, colorectal cancer (CRC) is a prime candidate for investment to reduce the cancer burden. The challenge is determining effective ways to reduce morbidity and mortality and their implementation through policy and practice. Pathways-Bowel is a multistage programme that aims to identify best-value investment in CRC control by integrating expert and end-user engagement; relevant evidence; modelled interventions to guide future investment; and policy-driven implementation of interventions using evidence-based methods. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Pathways-Bowel is an iterative work programme incorporating a calibrated and validated CRC natural history model for Australia (Policy1-Bowel) and assessing the health and cost outcomes and resource use of targeted interventions. Experts help identify and prioritise modelled evaluations of changing trends and interventions and critically assess results to advise on their real-world applicability. Where appropriate the results are used to support public policy change and make the case for optimal investment in specific CRC control interventions. Fourteen high-priority evaluations have been modelled or planned, including evaluations of CRC outcomes from the changing prevalence of modifiable exposures, including smoking and body fatness; potential benefits of daily aspirin intake as chemoprevention; increasing CRC incidence in people aged <50 years; increasing screening participation in the general and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations; alternative screening technologies and modalities; and changes to follow-up surveillance protocols. Pathways-Bowel is a unique, comprehensive approach to evaluating CRC control; no prior body of work has assessed the relative benefits of a variety of interventions across CRC development and progression to produce a list of best-value investments. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethics approval was not required as human participants were not involved. Findings are reported in a series of papers in peer-reviewed journals and presented at fora to engage the community and policymakers.

Time from diagnosis to treatment of colorectal cancer in a South Australian clinical registry cohort: how it varies and relates to survival.

OBJECTIVES: Some early studies indicated lower survival with longer time from diagnosis to cancer treatment, but others showed the reverse. We investigated time to treatment of colorectal cancer and associations with survival. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Clinical registry data for colorectal cancer cases diagnosed in 2000-2010 at four major public hospitals in South Australia and treated by surgery (n=1675), radiotherapy (n=616) and/or systemic therapy (n=1556). DESIGN: A historic cohort design, with rank-order tests for ordinal clinical and sociodemographic predictors and multiple logistic regression for comparing time from diagnosis to treatment. Unadjusted Kaplan-Meier estimates and adjusted Cox proportional hazards regression were used to investigate disease-specific survival by time to treatment. OUTCOME MEASURES: Time to treatment and survival from diagnosis to death from colorectal cancer. RESULTS: Treatment (any type) commenced for 87% of surgical cases <60 days of diagnosis, with 80% having surgery within this period. Of those receiving radiotherapy, 59% began this treatment <60 days, and of those receiving systemic therapy, the corresponding proportion was 56%. Adjusted analyses showed treatment delay >60 days was more likely for rectal cancers, 2006-2010 diagnoses, residents of northern than other metropolitan regions and for surgery, younger ages <50 years and unexpectedly, those residing closer to metropolitan services. Adjusting for clinical and sociodemographic factors, and diagnostic year, better survival occurred in <2 years from diagnosis for time to treatment >30 days. Survival in the 3-10 years postdiagnosis generally did not differ by time to treatment, except for lower survival for any treatment >90 days for surgical cases. CONCLUSIONS: The lower survival <2 years from diagnosis for treatment <30 days of diagnosis is consistent with other studies attributed to preferencing more complicated cases for earlier care. Lower 3-10 years survival for surgical cases first treated >90 days from diagnosis is consistent with previously reported U-shaped relationships.

Coaching to support men in making informed choices about prostate cancer screening: A qualitative study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine the perceptions of men, practice nurses (PNs) and general practitioners (GPs) on patient decision coaching for prostate cancer screening. METHODS: Seven focus groups were conducted with 47 participants, representing three stakeholder groups - men, GPs and PNs. All focus group discussions were conducted by the same facilitator and guided by a semi-structured interview schedule. Transcriptions were analysed by thematic analysis. RESULTS: Knowledge about the merits of prostate cancer screening was high amongst GPs, but limited with PNs and men. All groups saw the value in PN-led decision coaching for men considering screening for prostate cancer, but had reservations about its implementation in practice. Barriers to implementing a decision coaching system with PNs included staffing and cost of implementation. CONCLUSION: GPs, PNs and men identified benefits for the use of a PN-led decision coaching support intervention to assist men with making an informed choice about screening for prostate cancer. Stakeholders had reservations about how a PN-led intervention would effectively work in clinical practice. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: A feasibility study is required to examine barriers and enablers to implementing a PN-led decision coaching process for prostate cancer screening in the Australian primary healthcare setting.

Men's knowledge, attitudes and behaviours relating to fertility.

BACKGROUND: The increasingly common practice in high-income countries to delay childbearing to the fourth and fifth decades of life increases the risk of involuntary childlessness or having fewer children than desired. Older age also increases the risk of age-related infertility, the need for ART to conceive, and obstetric and neonatal complications. Existing research relating to childbearing focusses almost exclusively on women, and in public discourse declining fertility rates are often assumed to be the result of women delaying childbearing to pursue other life goals such as a career and travel. However, evidence suggests that the lack of a partner or a partner willing to commit to parenthood is the main reason for later childbearing. OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE: To better understand men's contributions to childbearing decisions and outcomes, the literature pertaining to men's fertility-related knowledge, attitudes and behaviours was reviewed. SEARCH METHODS: The electronic databases of Medline, Embase and PsycINFO were searched to identify investigations of men's knowledge, attitudes and behaviours relating to fertility, infertility, reproductive health or childbearing using relevant fertility keyword search terms. Studies were included if they had investigated factors associated with men's fertility-related knowledge, attitudes and behaviours, had been conducted in a high-income country and were published in an English language peer-reviewed journal between January 2005 and August 2016. OUTCOMES: The search yielded 1349 citations. Of these, 47 papers representing 43 unique studies were included in the review. Where response rate was reported, it ranged between 13 and 94%. Studies varied in terms of research design; inclusion and exclusion criteria; recruitment strategies; adequacy of sample size; recruitment and retention rates and data collection tools. However, findings were consistent and indicate that men almost universally value parenthood, want and expect to become fathers, and aspire to have at least two children. Yet most men have inadequate knowledge about the limitations of female and male fertility and overestimate the chance of spontaneous and assisted conception. Perceptions of ideal circumstances in which to have children included being in a stable and loving relationship, having completed studies, secured a permanent job and a dependable income, having achieved personal maturity, and having a partner who desires children and is 'suitable' as a potential co-parent. Although all studies were conducted in high-income countries, between-country social and cultural differences may have influenced the findings relating to attitudes. WIDER IMPLICATIONS: Men aspire to parenthood as much as women do but have limited knowledge about the factors that influence fertility. The gap between ideal biological and ideal social age for having children appears to be widening, narrowing the time frame in which parenthood can be achieved. This may lead to unfulfilled parenthood aspirations. The findings can inform government policies and public education strategies aimed to support childbearing during the most fertile years, reduce the personal and societal cost of infertility and ART use, and allow people to fulfil their parenthood goals.