Spectrum of LYST mutations in Chediak-Higashi syndrome: a report of novel variants and a comprehensive review of the literature.

INTRODUCTION: Chediak-Higashi syndrome (CHS) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterised by partial oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, immunological dysfunction and neurological impairment. Bi-allelic loss-of-function variants in LYST cause CHS. LYST encodes the lysosomal trafficking regulator, a highly conserved 429 kDa cytoplasmic protein with an unknown function. METHODS: To further our understanding of the pathogenesis of CHS, we conducted clinical evaluations on individuals with CHS enrolled in our natural history study. Using genomic DNA Sanger sequencing, we identified novel pathogenic LYST variants. Additionally, we performed an extensive literature review to curate reported LYST variants and classified these novel and reported variants according to the American College of Medical Genetics/Association for Molecular Pathology variant interpretation guidelines. RESULTS: Our investigation unveiled 11 novel pathogenic LYST variants in eight patients with a clinical diagnosis of CHS, substantiated by the presence of pathognomonic giant intracellular granules. From these novel variants, together with a comprehensive review of the literature, we compiled a total of 147 variants in LYST, including 61 frameshift variants (41%), 44 nonsense variants (30%), 23 missense variants (16%), 13 splice site variants or small genomic deletions for which the coding effect is unknown (9%), 5 in-frame variants (3%) and 1 start-loss variant (1%). Notably, a genotype-phenotype correlation emerged, whereby individuals harbouring at least one missense or in-frame variant generally resulted in milder disease, while those with two nonsense or frameshift variants generally had more severe disease. CONCLUSION: The identification of novel pathogenic LYST variants and improvements in variant classification will provide earlier diagnoses and improved care to individuals with CHS.

Safety and efficacy of N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) in patients with GNE myopathy: an open-label phase 2 study.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) in GNE myopathy, a genetic muscle disease caused by deficiency of the rate-limiting enzyme in N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) biosynthesis. METHODS: We conducted an open-label, phase 2, single-center (NIH, USA) study to evaluate oral ManNAc in 12 patients with GNE myopathy (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02346461). Primary endpoints were safety and biochemical efficacy as determined by change in plasma Neu5Ac and sarcolemmal sialylation. Clinical efficacy was evaluated using secondary outcome measures as part of study extensions, and a disease progression model (GNE-DPM) was tested as an efficacy analysis method. RESULTS: Most drug-related adverse events were gastrointestinal, and there were no serious adverse events. Increased plasma Neu5Ac (+2,159 nmol/L, p < 0.0001) and sarcolemmal sialylation (p = 0.0090) were observed at day 90 compared to baseline. A slower rate of decline was observed for upper extremity strength (p = 0.0139), lower extremity strength (p = 0.0006), and the Adult Myopathy Assessment Tool (p = 0.0453), compared to natural history. Decreased disease progression was estimated at 12 (γ = 0.61 [95% CI: 0.09, 1.27]) and 18 months (γ = 0.55 [95% CI: 0.12, 1.02]) using the GNE-DPM. CONCLUSION: ManNAc showed long-term safety, biochemical efficacy consistent with the intended mechanism of action, and preliminary evidence clinical efficacy in patients with GNE myopathy.

Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome: Mutation update.

Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is a group of 10 autosomal recessive multisystem disorders, each defined by the deficiency of a specific gene. HPS-associated genes encode components of four ubiquitously expressed protein complexes: Adaptor protein-3 (AP-3) and biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles complex-1 (BLOC-1) through -3. All individuals with HPS exhibit albinism and a bleeding diathesis; additional features occur depending on the defective protein complex. Pulmonary fibrosis is associated with AP-3 and BLOC-3 deficiency, immunodeficiency with AP-3 defects, and gastrointestinal symptoms are more prevalent and severe in BLOC-3 deficiency. Therefore, identification of the HPS subtype is valuable for prognosis, clinical management, and treatment options. The prevalence of HPS is estimated at 1-9 per 1,000,000. Here we summarize 264 reported and novel variants in 10 HPS genes and estimate that ~333 Puerto Rican HPS subjects and ~385 with other ethnicities are reported to date. We provide pathogenicity predictions for missense and splice site variants and list variants with high minor allele frequencies. Current cellular and clinical aspects of HPS are also summarized. This review can serve as a manifest for molecular diagnostics and genetic counseling aspects of HPS.

Genetic variants associated with Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome.

Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by defective biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles. Clinical manifestations include a bleeding diathesis due to a platelet delta storage pool deficiency, oculocutaneous albinism, inflammatory bowel disease, neutropenia, and pulmonary fibrosis. Ten genes associated with HPS are identified to date, and each gene encodes a protein subunit of either Biogenesis of Lysosome-related Organelles Complex (BLOC)-1, BLOC-2, BLOC-3, or the Adaptor Protein-3 complex. Several genetic variants and phenotypic heterogeneities are reported in individuals with HPS, who generally exhibit easy bruisability and increased bleeding. Desmopressin, pro-coagulants, or platelet transfusion may be used as prophylaxis or treatment for excessive bleeding in patients with HPS. However, response to desmopressin can be variable. Platelets are effective in preventing or treating bleeding in individuals with HPS, but platelets should be transfused judiciously to limit alloimmunization in patients with HPS who are at risk of developing pulmonary fibrosis and may be potential candidates for lung transplantation. The discovery of new genes associated with HPS in people with excessive bleeding and hypopigmentation of unknown etiology may be facilitated by the use of next-generation sequencing or panel-based genetic testing.

Quantitation of cytidine-5'-monophospho-N-acetylneuraminic acid in human leukocytes using LC-MS/MS: method development and validation.

The biosynthesis of sialic acid (Neu5Ac) leads to the intracellular production of cytidine-5'-monophospho-N-acetylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac), the active sialic acid donor to nascent glycans (glycoproteins and glycolipids) in the Golgi. UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase/N-acetylmannosamine kinase myopathy is a rare autosomal recessive muscular disease characterized by progressive muscle weakness and atrophy. To quantify the intracellular levels of CMP-Neu5Ac as well as N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) and Neu5Ac in human leukocytes, we developed and validated robust liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methods. A fit-for-purpose approach was implemented for method validation. Hydrophilic interaction chromatography was used to retain three hydrophilic analytes. The human leukocyte pellets were lysed and extracted in a methanol-water mixture and the leukocyte extract was used for LC-MS/MS analysis. The lower limits of quantitation for ManNAc, Neu5Ac and CMP-Neu5Ac were 25.0, 25.0 and 10.0 ng/ml, respectively. These validated methods were applied to a clinical study.

Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome with a novel genetic variant in HPS1 and subsequent accelerated pulmonary fibrosis: significance for phenocopy diseases.

The Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is a collection of autosomal-recessive disorders characterised by tyrosinase-positive oculocutaneous albinism (OCA), bleeding diatheses and, in selected individuals, early-onset accelerated pulmonary fibrosis, neutropaenia and granulomatous colitis. We describe a young man who presented following a self-directed literature review prompted by severe bleeding complications following minor surgical and dental procedures in the context of OCA. HPS was clinically suspected, with subsequent genetic testing confirming biallelic mutations in the HPS1 gene. Of interest, this is the only described HPS type 1 patient with two different (compound heterozygote) splice site variants in HPS1 In addition to detailing a novel genetic result and outlining the progressive clinical course of disease in this case, we discuss the management of HPS, the prognostic value of subtype analysis and the technical difficulties relating to transplantation in the case of HPS-associated advanced pulmonary fibrosis. This case also illustrates the concept of lung phenocopy relationships and the potential for elucidating the pathogenesis of more common pulmonary disorders by studying genetic diseases that result in similar phenotypes. Furthermore, it re-emphasises the importance of the patient voice, particularly with regard to complex diagnoses and rare diseases.

Quantification of lectin fluorescence in GNE myopathy muscle biopsies.

INTRODUCTION: GNE myopathy is an adult-onset muscle disorder characterized by impaired sialylation of (muscle) glycans, detectable by lectin histochemistry. We describe a standardized method to quantify (lectin-) fluorescence in muscle sections, applicable for diagnosis and response to therapy for GNE myopathy. METHODS: Muscle sections were fluorescently labeled with the sialic acid-binding Sambucus nigra agglutinin (SNA) lectin and antibodies to sarcolemma residence protein caveolin-3 (CAV-3). Entire tissue sections were imaged in tiles and fluorescence was quantified. RESULTS: SNA fluorescence co-localizing with CAV-3 was ∼50% decreased in GNE myopathy biopsies compared with muscle-matched controls, confirming previous qualitative results. DISCUSSION: This quantitative fluorescence method can accurately determine sialylation status of GNE myopathy muscle biopsies. This method is adaptable for expression of other membrane-associated muscle proteins, and may be of benefit for disorders in which therapeutic changes in expression are subtle and difficult to assess by other methods. Muscle Nerve 58: 286-292, 2018.

Mutations in KIAA0753 cause Joubert syndrome associated with growth hormone deficiency.

Joubert syndrome and related disorders (JSRD) are a heterogeneous group of ciliopathies defined based on the mid-hindbrain abnormalities that result in the characteristic "molar tooth sign" on brain imaging. The core clinical findings of JSRD are hypotonia, developmental delay, abnormal eye movements and breathing abnormalities. To date, more than 30 JSRD genes that encode proteins important for structure and/or function of cilia have been identified. Here, we present 2 siblings with Joubert syndrome associated with growth hormone deficiency. Whole exome sequencing of the family identified compound heterozygous mutations in KIAA0753, i.e., a missense mutation (p.Arg257Gly) and an intronic mutation (c.2359-1G>C). The intronic mutation alters normal splicing by activating a cryptic acceptor splice site in exon 16. The novel acceptor site skips nine nucleotides, deleting three amino acids from the protein coding frame. KIAA0753 (OFIP) is a centrosome and pericentriolar satellite protein, previously not known to cause Joubert syndrome. We present comprehensive clinical descriptions of the Joubert syndrome patients as well as the cellular phenotype of defective ciliogenesis in the patients' fibroblasts.

Exome analysis of Smith-Magenis-like syndrome cohort identifies de novo likely pathogenic variants.

Smith-Magenis syndrome (SMS), a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by dysmorphic features, intellectual disability (ID), and sleep disturbances, results from a 17p11.2 microdeletion or a mutation in the RAI1 gene. We performed exome sequencing on 6 patients with SMS-like phenotypes but without chromosomal abnormalities or RAI1 variants. We identified pathogenic de novo variants in two cases, a nonsense variant in IQSEC2 and a missense variant in the SAND domain of DEAF1, and candidate de novo missense variants in an additional two cases. One candidate variant was located in an alpha helix of Necdin (NDN), phased to the paternally inherited allele. NDN is maternally imprinted within the 15q11.2 Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS) region. This can help clarify NDN's role in the PWS phenotype. No definitive pathogenic gene variants were detected in the remaining SMS-like cases, but we report our findings for future comparison. This study provides information about the inheritance pattern and recurrence risk for patients with identified variants and demonstrates clinical and genetic overlap of neurodevelopmental disorders. Identification and characterization of ID-related genes that assist in development of common developmental pathways and/or gene-networks, may inform disease mechanism and treatment strategies.

Safety, pharmacokinetics and sialic acid production after oral administration of N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) to subjects with GNE myopathy.

GNE myopathy is a rare, autosomal recessive, inborn error of sialic acid metabolism, caused by mutations in GNE, the gene encoding UDP-N-acetyl-glucosamine-2-epimerase/N-acetylmannosamine kinase. The disease manifests as an adult-onset myopathy characterized by progressive skeletal muscle weakness and atrophy. There is no medical therapy available for this debilitating disease. Hyposialylation of muscle glycoproteins likely contributes to the pathophysiology of this disease. N-acetyl-D-mannosamine (ManNAc), an uncharged monosaccharide and the first committed precursor in the sialic acid biosynthetic pathway, is a therapeutic candidate that prevents muscle weakness in the mouse model of GNE myopathy. We conducted a first-in-human, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, single-ascending dose study to evaluate safety and pharmacokinetics of ManNAc in GNE myopathy subjects. Single doses of 3 and 6g of oral ManNAc were safe and well tolerated; 10g was associated with diarrhea likely due to unabsorbed ManNAc. Oral ManNAc was absorbed rapidly and exhibited a short half-life (~2.4h). Following administration of a single dose of ManNAc, there was a significant and sustained increase in plasma unconjugated free sialic acid (Neu5Ac) (Tmax of 8-11h). Neu5Ac levels remained above baseline 48h post-dose in subjects who received a dose of 6 or 10g. Given that Neu5Ac is known to have a short half-life, the prolonged elevation of Neu5Ac after a single dose of ManNAc suggests that intracellular biosynthesis of sialic acid was restored in subjects with GNE myopathy, including those homozygous for mutations in the kinase domain. Simulated plasma concentration-time profiles support a dosing regimen of 6g twice daily for future clinical trials.

Clinical and molecular phenotyping of a child with Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome-7, an uncommon genetic type of HPS.

PURPOSE: Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is a rare inherited disorder with ten reported genetic types; each type has defects in subunits of either Adaptor Protein-3 complex or Biogenesis of Lysosome-related Organelles Complex (BLOC)-1, -2, or -3. Very few patients with BLOC-1 deficiency (HPS-7, -8, and -9 types) have been diagnosed. We report results of comprehensive clinical testing and molecular analyses of primary fibroblasts from a new case of HPS-7. RESULTS: A 6-year old Paraguayan male presented with hypopigmentation, ocular albinism, nystagmus, reduced visual acuity, and easy bruising. He also experienced delayed motor and language development as a very young child; head and chest trauma resulted in intracranial hemorrhage with subsequent right hemiparesis and lung scarring. There was no clinical evidence of immunodeficiency or colitis. Whole mount transmission electron microscopy revealed absent platelet delta granules; platelet aggregation testing was abnormal. Exome sequencing revealed a homozygous nonsense mutation in the Dystrobrevin binding protein 1 (DTNBP1) gene [NM_032122.4: c.307C>T; p.Gln103*], previously reported in a Portuguese adult. The gene encodes the dysbindin subunit of BLOC-1. Dysbindin protein expression was negligible in our patient's dermal fibroblasts, while his DTNBP1 mRNA level was similar to that of a normal control. CONCLUSIONS: Comprehensive clinical evaluation of the first pediatric case reported with HPS-7 reveals oculocutaneous albinism and platelet storage pool deficiency; his phenotype is consistent with findings in other patients with BLOC-1 disorders. This patient's markedly reduced Dysbindin protein expression in HPS-7 resulted from a mechanism other than nonsense mediated decay.

Cystic cerebellar dysplasia and biallelic LAMA1 mutations: a lamininopathy associated with tics, obsessive compulsive traits and myopia due to cell adhesion and migration defects.

BACKGROUND: Laminins are heterotrimeric complexes, consisting of α, ß and γ subunits that form a major component of basement membranes and extracellular matrix. Laminin complexes have different, but often overlapping, distributions and functions. METHODS: Under our clinical protocol, NCT00068224, we have performed extensive clinical and neuropsychiatric phenotyping, neuroimaging and molecular analysis in patients with laminin α1 (LAMA1)-associated lamininopathy. We investigated the consequence of mutations in LAMA1 using patient-derived fibroblasts and neuronal cells derived from neuronal stem cells. RESULTS: In this paper we describe individuals with biallelic mutations in LAMA1, all of whom had the cerebellar dysplasia, myopia and retinal dystrophy, in addition to obsessive compulsive traits, tics and anxiety. Patient-derived fibroblasts have impaired adhesion, reduced migration, abnormal morphology and increased apoptosis due to impaired activation of Cdc42, a member of the Rho family of GTPases that is involved in cytoskeletal dynamics. LAMA1 knockdown in human neuronal cells also showed abnormal morphology and filopodia formation, supporting the importance of LAMA1 in neuronal migration, and marking these cells potentially useful tools for disease modelling and therapeutic target discovery. CONCLUSION: This paper broadens the phenotypes associated with LAMA1 mutations. We demonstrate that LAMA1 deficiency can lead to alteration in cytoskeletal dynamics, which may invariably lead to alteration in dendrite growth and axonal formation. Estimation of disease prevalence based on population studies in LAMA1 reveals a prevalence of 1-20 in 1 000 000. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT00068224.

A congenital neutrophil defect syndrome associated with mutations in VPS45.

BACKGROUND: Neutrophils are the predominant phagocytes that provide protection against bacterial and fungal infections. Genetically determined neutrophil disorders confer a predisposition to severe infections and reveal novel mechanisms that control vesicular trafficking, hematopoiesis, and innate immunity. METHODS: We clinically evaluated seven children from five families who had neutropenia, neutrophil dysfunction, bone marrow fibrosis, and nephromegaly. To identify the causative gene, we performed homozygosity mapping using single-nucleotide polymorphism arrays, whole-exome sequencing, immunoblotting, immunofluorescence, electron microscopy, a real-time quantitative polymerase-chain-reaction assay, immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, fibroblast motility assays, measurements of apoptosis, and zebrafish models. Correction experiments were performed by transfecting mutant fibroblasts with the nonmutated gene. RESULTS: All seven affected children had homozygous mutations (Thr224Asn or Glu238Lys, depending on the child's ethnic origin) in VPS45, which encodes a protein that regulates membrane trafficking through the endosomal system. The level of VPS45 protein was reduced, as were the VPS45 binding partners rabenosyn-5 and syntaxin-16. The level of ß1 integrin was reduced on the surface of VPS45-deficient neutrophils and fibroblasts. VPS45-deficient fibroblasts were characterized by impaired motility and increased apoptosis. A zebrafish model of vps45 deficiency showed a marked paucity of myeloperoxidase-positive cells (i.e., neutrophils). Transfection of patient cells with nonmutated VPS45 corrected the migration defect and decreased apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS: Defective endosomal intracellular protein trafficking due to biallelic mutations in VPS45 underlies a new immunodeficiency syndrome involving impaired neutrophil function. (Funded by the National Human Genome Research Institute and others.).

New observation of sialuria prompts detection of liver tumor in previously reported patient.

UNLABELLED: Sialuria, a rare inborn error of metabolism, was diagnosed in a healthy 12-year-old boy through whole exome sequencing. The patient had experienced mild delays of speech and motor development, as well as persistent hepatomegaly. Identification of the 8th individual with this disorder, prompted follow-up of the mother-son pair of patients diagnosed over 15years ago. Hepatomegaly was confirmed in the now 19-year-old son, but in the 46-year-old mother a clinically silent liver tumor was detected by ultrasound and MRI. The tumor was characterized as an intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (IHCC) and DNA analysis of both tumor and normal liver tissue confirmed the original GNE mutation. As the maternal grandmother in the latter family died at age 49years of a liver tumor, a retrospective study of the remaining pathology slides was conducted and confirmed it to have been an IHCC as well. The overall observation generated the hypothesis that sialuria may predispose to development of this form of liver cancer. As proof of sialuria in the grandmother could not be obtained, an alternate cause of IHCC cannot be ruled out. In a series of 102 patients with IHCC, not a single instance was found with the allosteric site mutation in the GNE gene. This confirms that sialuria is rare even in a selected group of patients, but does not invalidate the concern that sialuria may be a risk factor for IHCC. SYNOPSIS: Sialuria is a rare inborn error of metabolism characterized by excessive synthesis and urinary excretion of free sialic acid with only minimal clinical morbidity in early childhood, but may be a risk factor for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in adulthood.

Delayed diagnosis in a house of correction: Smith-Magenis syndrome due to a de novo nonsense RAI1 variant.

We report a 25-year-old female confirmed to have Smith-Magenis syndrome (SMS) due to a de novo RAI1 variant. Her past history is significant for developmental and intellectual delay, early and escalating maladaptive behaviors, and features consistent with significant sleep disturbance, the etiology of which was not confirmed for over two decades. The diagnosis of SMS was initially suspected in 1998 (at age 12 years), but that was 5 years before the initial report of RAI1 variants as causative of the SMS phenotype; cytogenetic fluorescence in situ hybridization studies failed to confirm an interstitial deletion of 17p11.2. Re-evaluation for suspected SMS was pursued with RAI1 sequencing analysis in response to urgent parental concerns of escalating behaviors and aggression with subsequent incarceration of the subject for assault of a health professional. Genetic analysis revealed a de novo RAI1 (NM_030665.3) nonsense variant, c.5536C>T; p.Q1846X. This case illustrates the importance of confirming the SMS diagnosis, which is associated with cognitive and functional impairment, as well as significant psychiatric co-morbidities and behavioral problems. The diagnosis was particularly relevant to the legal discussion and determination of her competence to stand trial. As other similar cases may exist, this report will help to increase awareness of the possibility of a very late diagnosis of SMS, with the need for re-evaluation of individuals suspected to have SMS who were initially evaluated prior to the identification of the RAI1 gene. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The BEACH is hot: a LYST of emerging roles for BEACH-domain containing proteins in human disease.

BEACH (named after 'Beige and Chediak-Higashi') is a conserved ∼280 residue domain, present in nine human BEACH domain containing proteins (BDCPs). Most BDCPs are large, containing a PH-like domain for membrane association preceding their BEACH domain, and containing WD40 and other domains for ligand binding. Recent studies found that mutations in individual BDCPs cause several human diseases. BDCP alterations affect lysosome size (LYST and NSMAF), apoptosis (NSMAF), autophagy (LYST, WDFY3, LRBA), granule size (LYST, NBEAL2, NBEA) or synapse formation (NBEA). However, the roles of each BDCP in these membrane events remain controversial. After reviewing studies on individual BDCPs, we propose a unifying hypothesis that BDCPs act as scaffolding proteins that facilitate membrane events, including both fission and fusion, determined by their binding partners. BDCPs may also bind each other, enabling fusion or fission of vesicles that are not necessarily of the same type. Such mechanisms explain why different BDCPs may have roles in autophagy; each BDCP is specific for the cell type or the cargo, but not necessarily specific for attaching to the autophagosome. Further elucidation of these mechanisms, preferably carrying out the same experiment on multiple BDCPs, and possibly using patients' cells, may identify potential targets for therapy.

In vitro functional correction of Hermansky-Pudlak Syndrome type-1 by lentiviral-mediated gene transfer.

Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is a genetic disorder characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, bleeding tendency and susceptibility to pulmonary fibrosis. No curative therapy is available. Genetic correction directed to the lungs, bone marrow and/or gastro-intestinal tract might provide alternative forms of treatment for the diseases multi-systemic complications. We demonstrate that lentiviral-mediated gene transfer corrects the expression and function of the HPS1 gene in patient dermal melanocytes, which opens the way to development of gene therapy for HPS.

Expanding the clinical and molecular characteristics of PIGT-CDG, a disorder of glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors.

PIGT-CDG, an autosomal recessive syndromic intellectual disability disorder of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors, was recently described in two independent kindreds [Multiple Congenital Anomalies-Hypotonia-Seizures Syndrome 3 (OMIM, #615398)]. PIGT encodes phosphatidylinositol-glycan biosynthesis class T, a subunit of the heteropentameric transamidase complex that facilitates the transfer of GPI to proteins. GPI facilitates attachment (anchoring) of proteins to cell membranes. We describe, at ages 7 and 6 years, two children of non-consanguineous parents; they had hypotonia, severe global developmental delay, and intractable seizures along with endocrine, ophthalmologic, skeletal, hearing, and cardiac anomalies. Exome sequencing revealed that both siblings had compound heterozygous variants in PIGT (NM_015937.5), i.e., c.918dupC, a novel duplication leading to a frameshift, and c.1342C > T encoding a previously described missense variant. Flow cytometry studies showed decreased surface expression of GPI-anchored proteins on granulocytes, consistent with findings in previous cases. These siblings further delineate the clinical spectrum of PIGT-CDG, reemphasize the neuro-ophthalmologic presentation, clarify the endocrine features, and add hypermobility, low CSF albumin quotient, and hearing loss to the phenotypic spectrum. Our results emphasize that GPI anchor-related congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDGs) should be considered in subjects with early onset severe seizure disorders and dysmorphic facial features, even in the presence of a normal carbohydrate-deficient transferrin pattern and N-glycan profiling. Currently available screening for CDGs will not reliably detect this family of disorders, and our case reaffirms that the use of flow cytometry and genetic testing is essential for diagnosis in this group of disorders.

UDP-GlcNAc 2-Epimerase/ManNAc Kinase (GNE): A Master Regulator of Sialic Acid Synthesis.

UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase/N-acetylmannosamine kinase is the key enzyme of sialic acid biosynthesis in vertebrates. It catalyzes the first two steps of the cytosolic formation of CMP-N-acetylneuraminic acid from UDP-N-acetylglucosamine. In this review we give an overview of structure, biochemistry, and genetics of the bifunctional enzyme and its complex regulation. Furthermore, we will focus on diseases related to UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase/N-acetylmannosamine kinase.