Combined inhibition of CCR2 and ACE provides added protection against progression of diabetic nephropathy in Nos3-deficient mice.

Macrophage-mediated renal injury promotes the development of diabetic nephropathy. Blockade of chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 2 (CCR2) inhibits kidney macrophage accumulation and early glomerular damage in diabetic animals. This study tested early and late interventions with a CCR2 antagonist (CCR2A) in a model of progressive diabetic glomerulosclerosis and determined whether CCR2A provides added benefit over conventional treatment with an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEi). Diabetes was induced in hypertensive endothelial nitric oxide synthase (Nos3)-deficient mice by administration of five low-dose streptozotocin (STZ) injections daily. Groups of diabetic Nos3-/- mice received a CCR2A (30 mg·kg-1·day-1 PF-04634817 in chow) as an early intervention (weeks 2-15 after STZ). The late intervention (weeks 8-15 after STZ) involved PF-04634817 alone, ACEi (captopril in water 10 mg·kg-1·day-1) alone, or combined ACEi + CCR2A. Control diabetic and nondiabetic Nos3-/- mice received normal chow and water. Early intervention with a CCR2A inhibited kidney inflammation and glomerulosclerosis, albuminuria, podocyte loss, and renal function impairment but not hypertension in diabetic Nos3-/- mice. Late intervention with a CCR2A also inhibited kidney inflammation, glomerulosclerosis, and renal dysfunction but did not affect albuminuria. ACEi alone suppressed hypertension and albuminuria and partially reduced podocyte loss and glomerulosclerosis but did not affect renal dysfunction. Compared with ACEi alone, the combined late intervention with ACEi + CCR2A provided better protection against kidney damage (inflammation, glomerulosclerosis, and renal function impairment) but not albuminuria. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that combining CCR2A and ACEi provides broader and superior renal protection than ACEi alone in a model of established diabetic glomerulosclerosis with hypertension.

Reversibility of peripheral blood leukocyte phenotypic and functional changes after exposure to and withdrawal from tofacitinib, a Janus kinase inhibitor, in healthy volunteers.

This study evaluated the short-term effects of tofacitinib treatment on peripheral blood leukocyte phenotype and function, and the reversibility of any such effects following treatment withdrawal in healthy volunteers. Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-seropositive subjects received oral tofacitinib 10 mg twice daily for 4 weeks and were followed for 4 weeks after drug withdrawal. There were slight increases in total lymphocyte and total T-cell counts during tofacitinib treatment, and B-cell counts increased by up to 26%. There were no significant changes in granulocyte or monocyte counts, or granulocyte function. Naïve and central memory T-cell counts increased during treatment, while all subsets of activated T cells were decreased by up to 69%. T-cell subsets other than effector memory cluster of differentiation (CD)4+, activated naïve CD4+ and effector CD8+ T-cell counts and B-cell counts, normalized 4 weeks after withdrawal. Following ex vivo activation, measures of CMV-specific T-cell responses, and antigen non-specific T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity and interferon (IFN)-γ production, decreased slightly. These T-cell functional changes were most pronounced at Day 15, partially normalized while still on tofacitinib and returned to baseline after drug withdrawal. Total natural killer (NK)-cell counts decreased by 33%, returning towards baseline after drug withdrawal. NK-cell function decreased during tofacitinib treatment, but without a consistent time course across measured parameters. However, markers of NK-cell-mediated cytotoxicity, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and IFN-γ production were decreased up to 42% 1 month after drug withdrawal. CMV DNA was not detectable in whole blood, and there were no cases of herpes zoster reactivation. No new safety concerns arose. In conclusion, the effect of short-term tofacitinib treatment on leukocyte composition and function in healthy CMV+ volunteers is modest and largely reversible 4 weeks after withdrawal.

Preclinical to clinical translation of tofacitinib, a Janus kinase inhibitor, in rheumatoid arthritis.

A critical piece in the translation of preclinical studies to clinical trials is the determination of dosing regimens that allow maximum therapeutic benefit with minimum toxicity. The preclinical pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) profile of tofacitinib, an oral Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor, in a mouse collagen-induced arthritis (mCIA) model was compared with clinical PK/PD data from patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Preclinical evaluations included target modulation and PK/PD modeling based on continuous subcutaneous infusion or oral once- or twice-daily (BID) dosing paradigms in mice. The human PK/PD profile was obtained from pooled data from four phase 2 studies in patients with RA, and maximal effect models were used to evaluate efficacy after 12 weeks of tofacitinib treatment (1-15 mg BID). In mCIA, the main driver of efficacy was inhibition of cytokine receptor signaling mediated by JAK1 heterodimers, but not JAK2 homodimers, and continuous daily inhibition was not required to maintain efficacy. Projected efficacy could be predicted from total daily exposure irrespective of the oral dosing paradigm, with a total steady-state plasma concentration achieving 50% of the maximal response (Cave50) of ~100 nM. Tofacitinib potency (ED50) in clinical studies was ~3.5 mg BID (90% confidence interval: 2.3, 5.5) or total Cave50 of ~40 nM, derived using Disease Activity Scores from patients with RA. The collective clinical and preclinical data indicated the importance of Cave as a driver of efficacy, rather than maximum or minimum plasma concentration (Cmax or Cmin), where Cave50 values were within ~2-fold of each other.

Mechanistic investigations of test article-induced pancreatic toxicity at the endocrine-exocrine interface in the rat.

Pancreatic toxicity commonly affects the endocrine or exocrine pancreas. However, it can also occur at the endocrine-exocrine interface (EEI), where the capillary network of the islet merges with the capillaries of the surrounding acinar tissue, that is, the insulo-acinar portal system. The goal of this article is to describe a novel, test article-induced pancreatic toxicity that originated at the EEI and to summarize investigations into the mechanistic basis of the injury. This injury was initially characterized by light microscopy in 7/14 day-toxicity studies in Sprague-Dawley (Crl: CD®[SD]) rats with undisclosed test articles. Microvascular injury at the interface resulted in peri-islet serum exudation, fibrin deposition, hemorrhage, inflammation, and secondary degeneration/necrosis of surrounding exocrine tissue. More chronic injury presented as islet fibrosis and lobular atrophy. Direct cytotoxicity affecting the capillary endothelium at the EEI was confirmed ultrastructurally on day 4. Endothelial microparticle and blood flow studies further confirmed endothelial involvement. Similar lesions occurred less frequently in 2 other rat strains and not in the mouse, dog, or cynomolgus macaque. In summary, in vivo and investigative study data confirmed primary endothelial cytotoxicity in the pathogenesis of this lesion and suggested that the lesion may be rat/rat strain-specific and of uncertain relevance for human safety risk assessment.

JAK inhibition with tofacitinib suppresses arthritic joint structural damage through decreased RANKL production.

OBJECTIVE: The mechanistic link between Janus kinase (JAK) signaling and structural damage to arthritic joints in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is poorly understood. This study was undertaken to investigate how selective inhibition of JAK with tofacitinib (CP-690,550) affects osteoclast-mediated bone resorption in a rat adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) model, as well as human T lymphocyte RANKL production and human osteoclast differentiation and function. METHODS: Hind paw edema, inflammatory cell infiltration, and osteoclast-mediated bone resorption in rat AIA were assessed using plethysmography, histopathologic analysis, and immunohistochemistry; plasma and hind paw tissue levels of cytokines and chemokines (including RANKL) were also assessed. In vitro RANKL production by activated human T lymphocytes was evaluated by immunoassay, while human osteoclast differentiation and function were assessed via quantitative tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining and degradation of human bone collagen, respectively. RESULTS: Edema, inflammation, and osteoclast-mediated bone resorption in rats with AIA were dramatically reduced after 7 days of treatment with the JAK inhibitor, which correlated with reduced numbers of CD68/ED-1+, CD3+, and RANKL+ cells in the paws; interleukin-6 (transcript and protein) levels were rapidly reduced in paw tissue within 4 hours of the first dose, whereas it took 4-7 days of therapy for RANKL levels to decrease. Tofacitinib did not impact human osteoclast differentiation or function, but did decrease human T lymphocyte RANKL production in a concentration-dependent manner. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the JAK inhibitor tofacitinib suppresses osteoclast-mediated structural damage to arthritic joints, and this effect is secondary to decreased RANKL production.

Modulation of innate and adaptive immune responses by tofacitinib (CP-690,550).

Inhibitors of the JAK family of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases have demonstrated clinical efficacy in rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory disorders; however, the precise mechanisms by which JAK inhibition improves inflammatory immune responses remain unclear. In this study, we examined the mode of action of tofacitinib (CP-690,550) on JAK/STAT signaling pathways involved in adaptive and innate immune responses. To determine the extent of inhibition of specific JAK/STAT-dependent pathways, we analyzed cytokine stimulation of mouse and human T cells in vitro. We also investigated the consequences of CP-690,550 treatment on Th cell differentiation of naive murine CD4(+) T cells. CP-690,550 inhibited IL-4-dependent Th2 cell differentiation and interestingly also interfered with Th17 cell differentiation. Expression of IL-23 receptor and the Th17 cytokines IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-22 were blocked when naive Th cells were stimulated with IL-6 and IL-23. In contrast, IL-17A production was enhanced when Th17 cells were differentiated in the presence of TGF-ß. Moreover, CP-690,550 also prevented the activation of STAT1, induction of T-bet, and subsequent generation of Th1 cells. In a model of established arthritis, CP-690,550 rapidly improved disease by inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators and suppressing STAT1-dependent genes in joint tissue. Furthermore, efficacy in this disease model correlated with the inhibition of both JAK1 and JAK3 signaling pathways. CP-690,550 also modulated innate responses to LPS in vivo through a mechanism likely involving the inhibition of STAT1 signaling. Thus, CP-690,550 may improve autoimmune diseases and prevent transplant rejection by suppressing the differentiation of pathogenic Th1 and Th17 cells as well as innate immune cell signaling.

Characterization of the KRN cell transfer model of rheumatoid arthritis (KRN-CTM), a chronic yet synchronized version of the K/BxN mouse.

In this study, a chronic yet synchronized version of the K/BxN mouse, the KRN-cell transfer model (KRN-CTM), was developed and extensively characterized. The transfer of purified splenic KRN T cells into T cell-deficient B6.TCR.Calpha(-/-)H-2(b/g7) mice induced anti-glucose 6-phosphate isomerase antibody-dependent chronic arthritis in 100% of the mice with uniform onset of disease 7 days after T cell transfer. Cellular infiltrations were assessed by whole-ankle transcript microarray, cytokine and chemokine levels, and microscopic and immunohistochemical analyses 7 through 42 days after T cell transfer. Transcripts identified an influx of monocytes/macrophages and neutrophils into the ankles and identified temporal progression of cartilage damage and bone resorption. In both serum and ankle tissue there was a significant elevation in interleukin-6, whereas macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 were only elevated in tissue. Microscopic and immunohistochemical analyses revealed a time course for edema, synovial hypertrophy and hyperplasia, infiltration of F4/80-positive monocytes/macrophages and myeloperoxidase-positive neutrophils, destruction of articular cartilage, pannus invasion, bone resorption, extra-articular fibroplasia, and joint ankylosis. The KRN cell transfer model replicates many features of chronic rheumatoid arthritis in humans in a synchronized manner and lends itself to manipulation of adoptively transferred T cells and characterizing specific genes and T cell subsets responsible for rheumatoid arthritis pathogenesis and progression.

Janus kinase inhibitors for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis demonstrate similar profiles of in vitro cytokine receptor inhibition.

Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors have emerged as an effective class of therapies for various inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). JAK inhibitors function intracellularly by modulating the catalytic activity of JAKs and disrupting the receptor-mediated signaling of multiple cytokines and growth factors, including those with pro-inflammatory activity. Understanding the inhibition profiles of different JAK inhibitors, based on the associated cytokine receptors and downstream inflammatory pathways affected, is important to identify the potential mechanisms for observed differences in efficacy and safety. This study applied an integrated modeling approach, using in vitro whole blood cytokine inhibition potencies and plasma pharmacokinetics, to determine JAK-dependent cytokine receptor inhibition profiles, in the context of doses estimated to provide a similar clinical response in RA clinical trials. The calculated profiles of cytokine receptor inhibition for the JAK inhibitors tofacitinib, baricitinib, upadacitinib, and filgotinib and its metabolite, were generally similar when clinically efficacious doses for RA were considered. Only minor numerical differences in percentage cytokine receptor inhibition were observed, suggesting limited differentiation of these inhibitors based on JAK pharmacology, with each showing a differential selectivity for JAK1 heterodimer inhibition. Nevertheless, only robust clinical testing involving head-to-head studies will ultimately determine whether there are clinically meaningful differences between these JAK inhibitors. Furthermore, ongoing and future research into inhibitors with alternative JAK selectivity remains of clinical importance. Thus, all JAK inhibitors should be characterized via thorough preclinical, metabolic and pharmacological evaluation, adequate long-term clinical data, and when available, real-world experience.

PF-06651600, a Dual JAK3/TEC Family Kinase Inhibitor.

PF-06651600 was developed as an irreversible inhibitor of JAK3 with selectivity over the other three JAK isoforms. A high level of selectivity toward JAK3 is achieved by the covalent interaction of PF-06651600 with a unique cysteine residue (Cys-909) in the catalytic domain of JAK3, which is replaced by a serine residue in the other JAK isoforms. Importantly, 10 other kinases in the kinome have a cysteine at the equivalent position of Cys-909 in JAK3. Five of those kinases belong to the TEC kinase family including BTK, BMX, ITK, RLK, and TEC and are also inhibited by PF-06651600. Preclinical data demonstrate that inhibition of the cytolytic function of CD8+ T cells and NK cells by PF-06651600 is driven by the inhibition of TEC kinases. On the basis of the underlying pathophysiology of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, alopecia areata, and vitiligo, the dual activity of PF-06651600 toward JAK3 and the TEC kinase family may provide a beneficial inhibitory profile for therapeutic intervention.

PT-100, a small molecule dipeptidyl peptidase inhibitor, has potent antitumor effects and augments antibody-mediated cytotoxicity via a novel immune mechanism.

The amino boronic dipeptide, PT-100 (Val-boro-Pro), a dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP) inhibitor, has been shown to up-regulate gene expression of certain cytokines in hematopoietic tissue via a high-affinity interaction, which appears to involve fibroblast activation protein. Because fibroblast activation protein is also expressed in stroma of lymphoid tissue and tumors, the effect of PT-100 on tumor growth was studied in mice in vivo. PT-100 has no direct cytotoxic effect on tumors in vitro. Oral administration of PT-100 to mice slowed growth of syngeneic tumors derived from fibrosarcoma, lymphoma, melanoma, and mastocytoma cell lines. In WEHI 164 fibrosarcoma and EL4 and A20/2J lymphoma models, PT-100 caused regression and rejection of tumors. The antitumor effect appeared to involve tumor-specific CTL and protective immunological memory. PT-100 treatment of WEHI 164-inoculated mice increased mRNA expression of cytokines and chemokines known to promote T-cell priming and chemoattraction of T cells and innate effector cells. The role of innate activity was further implicated by observation of significant, although reduced, inhibition of WEHI 164 and A20/2J tumors in immunodeficient mice. PT-100 also demonstrated ability to augment antitumor activity of rituximab and trastuzumab in xenograft models of human CD20(+) B-cell lymphoma and HER-2(+) colon carcinoma where antibody-dependent cytotoxicity can be mediated by innate effector cells responsive to the cytokines and chemokines up-regulated by PT-100. Although CD26/DPP-IV is a potential target for PT-100 in the immune system, it appeared not to be involved because antitumor activity and stimulation of cytokine and chemokine production was undiminished in CD26(-/-) mice.

Anti-inflammatory activity and neutrophil reductions mediated by the JAK1/JAK3 inhibitor, CP-690,550, in rat adjuvant-induced arthritis.

BACKGROUND: The Janus kinase (JAK) family of tyrosine kinases includes JAK1, JAK2, JAK3 and TYK2, and is required for signaling through Type I and Type II cytokine receptors. CP-690,550 is a potent and selective JAK inhibitor currently in clinical trials for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and other autoimmune disease indications. In RA trials, dose-dependent decreases in neutrophil counts (PBNC) were observed with CP-690,550 treatment. These studies were undertaken to better understand the relationship between JAK selectivity and PBNC decreases observed with CP-690,550 treatment. METHODS: Potency and selectivity of CP-690,550 for mouse, rat and human JAKs was evaluated in a panel of in vitro assays. The effect of CP-690,550 on granulopoiesis from progenitor cells was also assessed in vitro using colony forming assays. In vivo the potency of orally administered CP-690,550 on arthritis (paw edema), plasma cytokines, PBNC and bone marrow differentials were evaluated in the rat adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) model. RESULTS: CP-690,550 potently inhibited signaling through JAK1 and JAK3 with 5-100 fold selectivity over JAK2 in cellular assays, despite inhibiting all four JAK isoforms with nM potency in in vitro enzyme assays. Dose-dependent inhibition of paw edema was observed in vivo with CP-690,550 treatment. Plasma cytokines (IL-6 and IL-17), PBNC, and bone marrow myeloid progenitor cells were elevated in the context of AIA disease. At efficacious exposures, CP-690,550 returned all of these parameters to pre-disease levels. The plasma concentration of CP-690,550 at efficacious doses was above the in vitro whole blood IC50 of JAK1 and JAK3 inhibition, but not that of JAK2. CONCLUSION: Results from this investigation suggest that CP-690,550 is a potent inhibitor of JAK1 and JAK3 with potentially reduced cellular potency for JAK2. In rat AIA, as in the case of human RA, PBNC were decreased at efficacious exposures of CP-690,550. Inflammatory end points were similarly reduced, as judged by attenuation of paw edema and cytokines IL-6 and IL-17. Plasma concentration at these exposures was consistent with inhibition of JAK1 and JAK3 but not JAK2. Decreases in PBNC following CP-690,550 treatment may thus be related to attenuation of inflammation and are likely not due to suppression of granulopoiesis through JAK2 inhibition.

Hematopoietic stimulation by a dipeptidyl peptidase inhibitor reveals a novel regulatory mechanism and therapeutic treatment for blood cell deficiencies.

In hematopoiesis, cytokine levels modulate blood cell replacement, self-renewal of stem cells, and responses to disease. Feedback pathways regulating cytokine levels and targets for therapeutic intervention remain to be determined. Amino boronic dipeptides are orally bioavailable inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidases. Here we show that the high-affinity inhibitor Val-boro-Pro (PT-100) can stimulate the growth of hematopoietic progenitor cells in vivo and can accelerate neutrophil and erythrocyte regeneration in mouse models of neutropenia and acute anemia. Hematopoietic stimulation by PT-100 correlated with increased cytokine levels in vivo. In vitro, PT-100 promoted the growth of primitive hematopoietic progenitor cells by increasing granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-11 production by bone marrow stromal cells. Two molecular targets of PT-100 are expressed by stromal cells- CD26/DPP-IV and the closely related fibroblast activation protein (FAP). Because PT-100 was active in the absence of CD26, FAP appears to be the hematopoietic target for PT-100. Interaction of PT-100 with the catalytic site seems to be required because amino-terminal acetylation of PT-100 abrogated enzyme inhibition and hematopoietic stimulation. PT-100 is a therapeutic candidate for the treatment of neutropenia and anemia. The data support increasing evidence that dipeptidyl peptidases can regulate complex biologic systems by the proteolysis of signaling peptides.