ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: The costoclavicular space serves as an alternative approach to the infraclavicular brachial plexus block, and numerous studies in adults have demonstrated promising outcomes for distal upper limb surgery. Blocking the brachial plexus at this level is potentially advantageous because the cords are relatively superficial, located in close proximity to each other and easily identified using ultrasound. AIMS: This study aimed to assess the success rate and feasibility of costoclavicular block in children undergoing unilateral below elbow upper limb surgery. METHODS: Thirty children aged 2-12 years scheduled for unilateral below elbow surgery under general anesthesia were included. Costoclavicular block was performed under ultrasound and nerve stimulator guidance with 0.5% ropivacaine, 0.5 mL/kg. Success was evaluated based on the absence of significant hemodynamic response to skin incision made 20 min after the block. The sono-anatomy of costoclavicular space, ease of needling, complications, and the post-operative pain scores were assessed. RESULTS: The mean age and weight of the children were 6.5 ± 3.8 years and 19.7 ± 9.1 kg, respectively. The success rate of costoclavicular block in our cohort is 100%. Sonographic visualization was graded as excellent (Likert Scale 2) in 90% of cases. The plexus was located at a depth of 1.4 ± 0.3 cm from the skin, the lateral extent of cords from the artery was 0.8 ± 0.4 cm and they were observed inferior and lateral to the artery. The mean needling time was 3.6 ± 1.1 min. None of the children experienced complications such as vascular or pleural puncture, hematoma, Horner's syndrome or diaphragmatic palsy. Postoperative pain scores were low, and no rescue analgesia was required. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, the costoclavicular block exhibited a notably high success rate in pediatric population. This study substantiates that the three cords of the brachial plexus are consistently visible and superficial during ultrasound examination using this approach, confirming their separation from vascular structures and the reliable achievement of blockade without observed complications.
Subject(s)
Nerve Block , Ultrasonography, Interventional , Humans , Child , Prospective Studies , Child, Preschool , Male , Female , Ultrasonography, Interventional/methods , Nerve Block/methods , Brachial Plexus Block/methods , Ropivacaine/administration & dosage , Anesthetics, Local/administration & dosage , Pain, Postoperative/drug therapy , Brachial Plexus/diagnostic imaging , Clavicle/diagnostic imagingABSTRACT
Post-traumatic hypopituitarism has remained as an obscured cause of worsening morbidity and mortality in head injury patients. Researchers have for decades been puzzled by the mechanism of pituitary dysfunction in these cases. Amongst other causes like direct injury, vascular injury etc, an immunological basis of hypopituitarism has been suggested in some animal studies as well as human research. In this article, we have reviewed the latest articles and compiled the evidence which suggests for or against the role of autoimmunity in post-traumatic hypopituitarism or which defines the strength to which autoimmunity has been established as a cause of head-injury induced pituitary dysfunction.