Natural trait variation across Saccharomycotina species.

Among molecular biologists, the group of fungi called Saccharomycotina is famous for its yeasts. These yeasts in turn are famous for what they have in common-genetic, biochemical, and cell-biological characteristics that serve as models for plants and animals. But behind the apparent homogeneity of Saccharomycotina species lie a wealth of differences. In this review, we discuss traits that vary across the Saccharomycotina subphylum. We describe cases of bright pigmentation; a zoo of cell shapes; metabolic specialties; and species with unique rules of gene regulation. We discuss the genetics of this diversity and why it matters, including insights into basic evolutionary principles with relevance across Eukarya.

Do proximal hip geometry, trabecular microarchitecture, and prevalent vertebral fractures differ in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes mellitus? A cross-sectional study from a teaching hospital in southern India.

This study from southern India showed that the trabecular microarchitecture and proximal hip geometry were significantly impaired in postmenopausal women with diabetes as compared to age and BMI matched non-diabetic controls. This is despite there being no significant difference in bone mineral density at the femoral neck and hip not between both groups. One-third of the study subjects with type 2 diabetes had prevalent vertebral fractures. Bone mineral density assessment as a standalone tool may not adequately reflect bone health in subjects with diabetes. INTRODUCTION: There is limited information with regard to bone health in Indian postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes. We studied the bone mineral density (BMD), trabecular bone score (TBS), prevalent vertebral fractures (VF), proximal hip geometry, and bone mineral biochemistry in ambulatory postmenopausal women with and without type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study conducted at a tertiary care center. BMD, TBS, prevalent vertebral fractures, and hip structural analysis (HSA) were assessed using a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scanner. Bone mineral biochemical profiles were also studied. RESULTS: A total of 202 ambulatory postmenopausal women known to have type 2 diabetes mellitus with mean (SD) age of 65.6 (5.2) years and 200 age and BMI matched non-diabetic controls with mean (SD) age of 64.9 (4.7) years were recruited from the local community. Although the prevalence of lumbar spine osteoporosis was significantly lower among cases (30.7%) as compared to controls (42.9%), the prevalence of degraded bone microarchitecture (TBS < 1.200) was significantly higher among cases (51%) than in controls (23.5%); P < 0.001. Prevalent vertebral fractures were not significantly different in cases and controls. The various geometric indices of the proximal hip were significantly impaired in subjects with diabetes as compared to controls. CONCLUSION: This study may highlight the utility of the trabecular bone score and hip structural analysis in subjects with diabetes, where the bone mineral density tends to be paradoxically high, and may not adequately predict fracture risk.

Phase II trial of post-operative radiotherapy with concurrent cisplatin plus panitumumab in patients with high-risk, resected head and neck cancer.

BACKGROUND: Treatment intensification for resected, high-risk, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is an area of active investigation with novel adjuvant regimens under study. In this trial, the epidermal growth-factor receptor (EGFR) pathway was targeted using the IgG2 monoclonal antibody panitumumab in combination with cisplatin chemoradiotherapy (CRT) in high-risk, resected HNSCC. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Eligible patients included resected pathologic stage III or IVA squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity, larynx, hypopharynx, or human-papillomavirus (HPV)-negative oropharynx, without gross residual tumor, featuring high-risk factors (margins <1 mm, extracapsular extension, perineural or angiolymphatic invasion, or ≥2 positive lymph nodes). Postoperative treatment consisted of standard RT (60-66 Gy over 6-7 weeks) concurrent with weekly cisplatin 30 mg/m2 and weekly panitumumab 2.5 mg/kg. The primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS). RESULTS: Forty-six patients were accrued; 44 were evaluable and were analyzed. The median follow-up for patients without recurrence was 49 months (range 12-90 months). The probability of 2-year PFS was 70% (95% CI = 58%-85%), and the probability of 2-year OS was 72% (95% CI = 60%-87%). Fourteen patients developed recurrent disease, and 13 (30%) of them died. An additional five patients died from causes other than HNSCC. Severe (grade 3 or higher) toxicities occurred in 14 patients (32%). CONCLUSIONS: Intensification of adjuvant treatment adding panitumumab to cisplatin CRT is tolerable and demonstrates improved clinical outcome for high-risk, resected, HPV-negative HNSCC patients. Further targeted monoclonal antibody combinations are warranted. REGISTERED CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER: NCT00798655.

Phase II randomized trial of radiation therapy, cetuximab, and pemetrexed with or without bevacizumab in patients with locally advanced head and neck cancer.

BACKGROUND: We previously reported the safety of concurrent cetuximab, an antibody against epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), pemetrexed, and radiation therapy (RT) in patients with locally advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN). In this non-comparative phase II randomized trial, we evaluated this non-platinum combination with or without bevacizumab, an inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients with previously untreated stage III-IVB SCCHN were randomized to receive: conventionally fractionated radiation (70 Gy), concurrent cetuximab, and concurrent pemetrexed (arm A); or the identical regimen plus concurrent bevacizumab followed by bevacizumab maintenance for 24 weeks (arm B). The primary end point was 2-year progression-free survival (PFS), with each arm compared with historical control. Exploratory analyses included the relationship of established prognostic factors to PFS and quality of life (QoL). RESULTS: Seventy-eight patients were randomized: 66 oropharynx (42 HPV-positive, 15 HPV-negative, 9 unknown) and 12 larynx; 38 (49%) had heavy tobacco exposure. Two-year PFS was 79% [90% confidence interval (CI) 0.69-0.92; P < 0.0001] for arm A and 75% (90% CI 0.64-0.88; P < 0.0001) for arm B, both higher than historical control. No differences in PFS were observed for stage, tobacco history, HPV status, or type of center (community versus academic). A significantly increased rate of hemorrhage occurred in arm B. SCCHN-specific QoL declined acutely, with marked improvement but residual symptom burden 1 year post-treatment. CONCLUSIONS: RT with a concurrent non-platinum regimen of cetuximab and pemetrexed is feasible in academic and community settings, demonstrating expected toxicities and promising efficacy. Adding bevacizumab increased toxicity without apparent improvement in efficacy, countering the hypothesis that dual EGFR-VEGF targeting would overcome radiation resistance, and enhance clinical benefit. Further development of cetuximab, pemetrexed, and RT will require additional prospective study in defined, high-risk populations where treatment intensification is justified.

Phase I trial of pemetrexed in combination with cetuximab and concurrent radiotherapy in patients with head and neck cancer.

BACKGROUND: We studied the combination of pemetrexed, a multi-targeted antifolate, and cetuximab, an mAb against the epidermal growth factor receptor, with radiotherapy in poor prognosis head and neck cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients received pemetrexed on days 1, 22, and 43 on a dose-escalation scheme with starting level (0) 350 mg/m(2) (level -1, 200 mg/m(2); level +1, 500 mg/m(2)) with concurrent radiotherapy (2 Gy/day) and cetuximab in two separate cohorts, not previously irradiated (A) and previously irradiated (B), who received 70 and 60-66 Gy, respectively. Genetic polymorphisms of thymidylate synthase and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase were evaluated. RESULTS: Thirty-two patients were enrolled. The maximum tolerated dose of pemetrexed was 500 mg/m(2) in cohort A and 350 mg/m(2) in cohort B. Prophylactic antibiotics were required. In cohort A, two dose-limiting toxicities (DLTs) occurred (febrile neutropenia), one each at levels 0 and +1. In cohort B, two DLTs occurred at level +1 (febrile neutropenia; death from perforated duodenal ulcer and sepsis). Grade 3 mucositis was common. No association of gene polymorphisms with toxicity or efficacy was evident. CONCLUSION: The addition of pemetrexed 500 mg/m(2) to cetuximab and radiotherapy is recommended for further study in not previously irradiated patients.

Response assessment by combined PET-CT scan versus CT scan alone using RECIST in patients with locally advanced head and neck cancer treated with chemoradiotherapy.

PURPOSE: RECIST have limitations when applied to potentially curable locally advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN). [¹8F]fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography (PET) scan may be useful in assessing treatment response and predicting patient outcome. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We studied patients with previously untreated stages III-IVb SCCHN treated with primary concurrent chemoradiotherapy on five prospective clinical trials. Response was assessed by clinical exam, computed tomography (CT), and PET portions of combined PET-CT scan ∼8 weeks after completion of chemoradiotherapy. RESULTS: Fifty-three patients were analyzed. Complete response (CR) was demonstrated in 42 patients (79%) by clinical exam, 15 (28%) by CT, and 27 (51%) by PET. CR as assessed by PET, but not as assessed by clinical exam or CT using RECIST, correlated significantly with progression-free status (PFS) (P < 0.0001). The 2-year PFS for patients with CR and without CR by PET was 93% and 48%, respectively (P = 0.0002). CONCLUSIONS: A negative PET scan on combined PET-CT after chemoradiotherapy is a powerful predictor of outcome in patients receiving curative chemoradiotherapy for SCCHN. PET-CT is indicated for response evaluation in this setting to improve the accuracy of post-treatment assessment by CT.

Enrichment in tumor-reactive CD8+ T-lymphocytes by positive selection from the blood and lymph nodes of patients with head and neck cancer.

To study antitumor functions of T-lymphocyte subpopulations in the blood [peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs)] and tumor-draining lymph nodes (LNs) of patients (n = 26) with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN), antibody-coated devices were used to positively select CD8+ or CD4+ cells. The mean percentage of CD8+ cells captured on antibody-coated flasks from PBLs was 92% and that captured from lymph node lymphocytes (LNLs) was 98%. The initial enrichment in CD4+ T-cells was comparable. CD8+ T-lymphocytes captured from PBLs proliferated as well as unseparated lymphocytes in both patients with SCCHN and normal donors, while captured CD4+ PBLs of the patients showed significantly lower expansion than those of normal volunteers. Unseparated LNLs proliferated as well as PBLs, but captured CD4+ or CD8+ LNLs failed to proliferate in the presence of interleukin 2 (100 units/ml) and phytohemagglutinin (5 micrograms/ml). The addition to captured LNL cultures of irradiated autologous or allogeneic feeder cells significantly improved expansion of CD8+ LNLs but not CD4+ LNLs. During 15-day culture of captured CD8+ PBLs or CD8+ LNLs in the presence of feeder cells, a significant (P less than 0.05) enrichment in CD8+ T-cells was maintained [94 +/- 5% (mean +/- SEM) or 99.5 +/- 0.1%, respectively, on day 15]. Capture of CD8+ LNLs and their expansion resulted in the outgrowth of CD8+CD11b- effectors which had no or little cytotoxicity against Daudi, low cytotoxicity against K562, and very high levels of cytotoxicity against 4 different natural killer cell-resistant SCCHN targets, as measured in 4-h 51Cr release assays. Such significant enrichment in SCCHN-restricted cytotoxicity could be obtained with LNLs from tumor-uninvolved LNs but not from tumor-involved LNs. Captured and cultured CD4+ LNLs had no preferential anti-SCCHN cytotoxicity. The addition of irradiated autologous tumor cells to captured CD8+ PBLs did not result in improved proliferation or antitumor function of the effector cells. Positive selection on antibody-coated flasks of CD8+ T-lymphocytes from tumor-uninvolved LNs of patients with SCCHN led to the enrichment in SCCHN-restricted but the major histocompatibility complex-unrestricted effector cells in 15-day cultures. Thus, CD8+ lymphocytes separated from tumor-draining LNs in patients with head and neck cancer contained cytolytic T-cell precursors capable of developing into effectors with preferential activity against SCCHN targets.

Human cytotoxic T-cell lines with restricted specificity for squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck.

Human cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) lines with specificity restricted for autologous squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) were established from peripheral blood lymphocytes obtained at the time of surgery and again at two different times after surgery from a patient with cancer of the tongue. The CTL lines were cultured in the presence of interleukin (IL) 2, IL4, and autologous tumor (AuTu) cell monolayers. All three lines were CD3+CD8+CD11b-HLA-DR+ T-cell receptor alpha/beta+. They were tested in 4-h51Cr release assays against SCCHN cell lines (n = 5) and a variety of nonsquamous human tumor (n = 5) and normal (n = 5) cell targets and was found to lyse only AuTu (PCI-50) and three allogenic SCCHN cell lines. Lysis of AuTu and the three allogenic SCCHN targets by the established CTL lines appeared to be major histocompatibility complex class I restricted, since it was blocked by monoclonal antibodies to class I histocompatibility complex antigens. The CTL lines proliferated in vitro in response to autologous PCI-50 or an allogenic SCCHN cell line (PCI-1). The lines have been maintained in culture in the presence of AuTu monolayers and retained cytotoxicity against AuTu for over 20 weeks. The AuTu (PCI-50) cell line was tested for in vitro sensitivity to cytotoxic or cytostatic effects of various effector cells, including the CTL lines. PCI-50 targets were resistant to lysis by resting human mononuclear cells but sensitive to IL2-activated natural killer cells in 4-h 51Cr release assays. In comparison with IL2-activated natural killer cells, the CTL line mediated lower levels of lysis against AuTu. Growth of PCI-50 cells in culture was significantly inhibited by a combination of gamma-interferon and IL2 or by high concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha. While supernants of IL2-activated natural killer cells were growth inhibitory, those of the CTL line were not. On the other hand, lysis of AuTu targets by the CTL line was increased by preincubation of the tumor cells with tumor necrosis factor alpha or gamma-interferon. These cytokines augmented expression of HLA-class I, HLA-class II, and intercellular adhesion molecule I, but not squamous cell carcinoma-associated antigens, E7 and A9, on PCI-50 cells. The CTL lines described are the first with restricted specificity for autologous SCCHN ever reported and their availability will facilitate studies of the AuTu T-cell response in head and neck cancer.

Evidence for local and systemic activation of immune cells by peritumoral injections of interleukin 2 in patients with advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck.

Interleukin 2 (IL2) was injected peritumorally and intranodally in 36 patients with unresectable squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck enrolled in an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group-sponsored phase Ib trial (EST P-Z388). Groups of 6 patients received escalating doses(200, 2 x 10(3), 2 x 10(4), 2 x 10(5), 2 x 10(6), and 4 x 10(6) units) of IL2 daily 5 times/week for 2 weeks. Tumor biopsies were obtained before and after IL2 therapy. Tumor tissue was provided for histology, and the remaining fresh tissue was divided for snap-freezing in -75 degrees C and for separation of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) and tumor cells. Immunophenotyping of TIL performed on cryostat sections of paired pre- and post-IL2 biopsy tissues showed increases after IL2 therapy in the number of T-cells (P = 0.005), natural killer (NK; CD16+) cells (P = 0.0001), CD25+ cells (P = 0.004), and HLA-DR+ cells (P = 0.001) accumulating in the tumor stroma. In the tumor parenchyma, NK cells (P = 0.0001) and HLA-DR+ cells (P = 0.003) were increased after IL2 therapy. The T:NK cell ratios in the tumor stroma and parenchyma were decreased after therapy, suggesting selective accumulation of NK cells. By flow cytometry, TIL recovered from post-IL2 biopsy tissues were enriched (P < 0.05) in CD3-CD56+ (NK) cells. In situ hybridization with [35S] cDNA probes for cytokines and IL2 receptors indicated that the numbers of cells expressing mRNA for IL2, tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL1-beta, gamma-interferon, transforming growth factor beta, and IL2 receptor p55 or p70 were increased in post-IL2 biopsy tissues as compared to pre-IL2 tissues. Cytolytic activity of TIL isolated from post-IL2 tissues was also increased, as determined in 4-h 51Cr release assays against K562 targets (12 +/- 3 mean lytic units/10(7) cells +/- SEM pre-IL2 versus 46 +/- 13 post-IL2; n = 16) and against autologous tumor (13 +/- 8 versus 68 +/- 26; n = 9). Fresh TIL of one clinical responder showed relatively high levels (195 lytic units) of autotumor cytotoxicity after IL2 therapy versus no activity prior to therapy. In the blood, NK and lymphokine-activated killer cell activity, and percentages of CD3-CD56+ NK cells and of activated (CD25+) T-lymphocytes were increased for all doses of IL2.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Receptors for interleukin 2 on human squamous cell carcinoma cell lines and tumor in situ.

Several human head and neck squamous carcinoma cell lines were found to bind 125I-labeled or fluorescein-labeled interleukin 2 (IL-2). This binding was inhibited by an excess of cold ligand, IL-2, and by anti-p55 and anti-p70 monoclonal antibodies to the alpha and beta chains, respectively, of the IL-2 receptor (IL-2R). A small number (300/cell) of high-affinity IL-2R (2 x 10(-12) M) and a larger number (> 13,000/cells) of intermediate-affinity IL-2R (3 x 10(-10) M) were present on these tumor cells. By affinity cross-linking, tumor cells were shown to bind 125I-IL-2 to a M(r) 66,000 and 55,000 doublet peptide. The alpha and beta chains of the IL-2R also were detected on the surface of cultured tumor cells using the relevant monoclonal antibodies and flow cytometry. Immunoperoxidase staining with anti-p70 monoclonal antibody confirmed the expression of IL-2R on squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck in situ. The presence of transcripts for p55/IL-2R-alpha and p70/IL-2R-beta in PCI-1 cells was confirmed by the polymerase chain reaction followed by hybridization to the IL-2R-alpha complementary DNA probe or IL-2R-beta complementary DNA probe, respectively. Our observations demonstrate that intermediate-affinity and high-affinity IL-2Rs are expressed on some human squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck and that the receptors are functional, because growth of these tumor cell lines can be directly inhibited by exogenously supplied IL-2. The presence of IL-2R on human solid tumors could be important to consider, in addition to immunomodulatory effects of IL-2, in developing optimal therapeutic strategies for the administration of IL-2 to patients with cancer.

Long-term interleukin 2-dependent growth and cytotoxic activity of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from human squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck.

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) from 16 squamous cell carcinomas of head and neck (SCCH&N) and four nonsquamous cell carcinomas were studied. By immunoperoxidase staining in situ, the tumors studied were found to be infiltrated mainly by CD2+CD3+ cells, and 30-50% of the T-lymphocytes were HLA-DR positive and transferrin-receptor positive. They also contained scarce NKH1+ cells. When TIL as well as autologous peripheral blood lymphocytes (A-PBL) were cultured in 1,000 U/ml of recombinant interleukin 2 (rIL2), TIL proliferated in all but three cases, and A-PBL proliferated in all but two cases. Frequently, but not always, TIL expanded better than A-PBL. The median expansion for TIL was 100-fold and that for A-PBL was 31-fold in long-term cultures maintained for up to 88 days. TIL obtained from untreated primary SCCH&N were initially delayed for up to 20 days in their proliferative response to rIL2, but then grew well. In contrast, TIL and A-PBL from metastatic SCCH&N either did not proliferate or were delayed in their proliferative response for up to 40 or 50 days. A-PBL, when tested early (days 10-20 in culture), showed the highest cytotoxic activity against cultured and fresh tumor-cell targets, whereas TIL were most active later in culture (days 20-30). On a per culture basis, TIL achieved higher antitumor cytotoxicity than A-PBL. By day 80, lytic activities of most TIL cultures declined to undetectable levels. CD3+Leu19- T-lymphocytes were the major expanding cell population in most TIL cultures. However, these cells were poor mediators of antitumor cytotoxicity in TIL or A-PBL cultures as shown in cell sorting experiments. The antitumor effector cells expressed CD3-Leu19+ and/or CD3+Leu19+ phenotypes. On Giemsa-stained smears, these two types of IL2-expanded effector cells had the morphology of large granular lymphocytes. Our results indicate that TIL from human SCCH&N could be expanded and reach high levels of antitumor effector function in long-term cultures with rIL2.

Local adoptive immunotherapy of human head and neck cancer xenografts in nude mice with lymphokine-activated killer cells and interleukin 2.

The efficacy of local adoptive immunotherapy with human lymphokine-activated killer cells and recombinant interleukin 2 (rIL-2) in growth inhibition of established squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) was evaluated in a nude mouse model. The model of xenografted SCCHN was established by s.c. injections of in vitro maintained tumor cells (2-10 x 10(6) cells/mouse) into the flank of splenectomized animals pretreated with cyclophosphamide (200 mg/kg). The SCCHN line used was tumorigenic in 95% of the appropriately conditioned nude mice. Inhibition of tumor growth by locally administered effector cells was the end point of the study, since the tumors did not metastasize within 6 weeks of tumor challenge. Either i.p. or local administration of rIL-2 alone (1000 units/day) to the tumor site daily for 2 weeks resulted in a significant inhibition of tumor growth. In the absence of detectable natural killer activity in these mice, a modest dose of rIL-2 had a direct antitumor effect on SCCHN cells in vivo. In addition, complete inhibition of tumor growth was achieved with 3 times weekly injections of 5-10 x 10(6) lymphokine-activated killer cells delivered to the tumor site and 1000 units of rIL-2 administered locally every day for 2 weeks. Our data indicate that local or systemic immunotherapy with rIL-2 alone or local adoptive immunotherapy with an adequate dose of lymphokine-activated killer cells plus rIL-2 may be effective in preventing the growth of established SCCHN tumors in vivo.

Biology, cytogenetics, and sensitivity to immunological effector cells of new head and neck squamous cell carcinoma lines.

Twenty-one head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cell lines were established from 89 fresh tumor specimens in order to study the biology of HNSCC lines, establish tumors in nude mice, and evaluate the sensitivity to immunological effector cells of these tumors in vitro and in vivo in nude mice. The lines were established from explants using differential trypsinization and culture for 2 to 20 mo. The explants were derived from 11 different sites. Three pairs of lines were derived from both the primary tumor and metastatic lymph nodes in the same patients. All cultures grew as either compact or diffuse adherent monolayers, and they had a median doubling time of 86 h (range, 33 to 531 h). DNA fingerprinting confirmed that the HNSCC lines were individual isolates. Thirteen of 14 lines tested induced tumors in athymic mice. The histology of each line growing in nude mice was similar to that of the original tumor tissue. Immunocytochemistry showed keratin production in all lines tested. Aneuploidy (36 to 87 chromosomes) was present in all 16 lines studied; the median chromosome number for lines derived from primary tumors was 70, whereas for lines originating from metastatic or recurrent tumors, it was 54. Karyotypic analysis showed deletion of the short arm of chromosome 3 (3p-) in 12 of 16 cell lines and trisomy 6 in 12 of 16 lines. In addition, translocations between chromosomes 9 and 11 or 9 and 12 were each present in five of 16 lines tested. The HNSCC lines were resistant to lysis by natural killer cells, but were efficiently lysed by lymphokine-activated killer cells in 4-h 51Cr release assays. These new lines have allowed us to establish a model of local adoptive immunotherapy of HNSCC in tumor-bearing nude mice, and they provide a resource for future studies of the biology of HNSCC.

Adjuvant chemotherapy for high-risk squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck.

A prospective clinical trial was developed to evaluate efficacy, toxicity, and patient compliance to adjuvant chemotherapy following surgery and postoperative radiation therapy in patients with squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck with extracapsular spread of tumor in cervical metastases. Following postoperative radiation therapy, 18 courses of methotrexate (MTX) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) were administered over 6 months. Fifty patients were registered. A total of 771 doses were administered. Dose reduction was required 72 times. Therapy was stopped in one patient (2%) because of toxicity. Three patients (6%) refused to complete the adjuvant therapy. Adjusted 2-year no evidence of disease (NED) survival is 66%. This study demonstrates that patients with advanced squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck can undertake an aggressive program of adjuvant MTX/5-FU with acceptable compliance and toxicities. Preliminary data generated in this nonrandomized study support the call for a prospective randomized multiinstitutional trial of this program.

Clinical evaluation of MGI 209, an anesthetic, film-forming agent for relief from painful oral ulcers associated with chemotherapy.

PURPOSE: This open-label, multicenter trial evaluated the efficacy of a mucoadherent, anesthetic medication (MGI 209) for relief from painful oral ulcers associated with cytotoxic chemotherapy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-eight eligible cancer patients who had up to five discrete oral ulcers (total area < or = 5 cm2) completed this study. Mean age was 53.5 years (range, 21 to 81). Subjective assessments of oral discomfort before and after an orange juice pain challenge (OJPC), which was measured using a visual analog scale (VAS), and visual estimates of the amount of MGI 209 that remained on treated ulcers were collected at (1) baseline (before MGI 209 treatment); and (2) 30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes posttreatment. RESULTS: Most subjects had low VAS scores (4 or less), which was indicative of oral discomfort, at baseline before and after the OJPC. At 30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes after MGI 209 treatment, most subjects had high VAS scores before and after an OJPC compared with baseline scores, which was indicative of a substantial increase in oral comfort; these differences were statistically significant (P < .0001). Mean percent of MGI 209 estimated to remain on ulcers at the previously mentioned times was 93.7%, 90.3%, 79.6%, and 71.3% of the total amount applied, respectively. CONCLUSION: Benzocaine hydrochloride in combination with the protective, mucoadherent film-coating relieved discomfort for at least 3 hours even with exposure to an irritating beverage. MGI 209 treatment should allow patients with chemotherapy-induced oral ulcers to drink and eat with significantly diminished pain or no pain.

Clinical significance of decreased zeta chain expression in peripheral blood lymphocytes of patients with head and neck cancer.

Patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) frequently have impaired immune responses. Alterations in T-cell receptor-associated signaling molecules in tumor-infiltrating as well as circulating lymphocytes have been reported in these patients. Using quantitative flow cytometry analysis, we have demonstrated that expression of the zeta chain is significantly decreased relative to normal controls in both CD8+ and CD4+ T cells as well as CD3- CD56+ CD16+ natural killer cells in the peripheral blood of patients with SCCHN who, as a result of previous therapies, have no evident disease. Patients with a more aggressive type of SCCHN and those who experienced a recurrence or had a second primary cancer within the last 2 years of the study had the lowest zeta chain expression. In addition, SCCHN patients showed a significantly greater spontaneous ex vivo apoptosis, as measured by a terminal deoxynucleotide transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling assay, in PBMCs, compared to normal controls. The observed decreased expression of zeta in T and natural killer cells coincided but did not directly correlate with significantly increased spontaneous apoptosis of lymphocytes obtained from treated patients with no evident disease. The results suggest that in patients with SCCHN, zeta chain defects and lymphocyte apoptosis are manifestations of long-lasting negative effects of tumor on the immune system.

Spontaneous ex vivo apoptosis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with head and neck cancer.

Proportions of apoptotic (TUNEL+) peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were measured by flow cytometry in patients with head and neck cancer and normal controls at the time of blood draws (0 time) and after 24-h incubation. PBMCs were incubated at 37 degrees C in medium (spontaneous apoptosis) and in the presence of CH-11 antibody (anti-Fas) or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, both capable of inducing DNA fragmentation in activated T cells expressing the TNF family of receptors. PBMCs obtained from the patients had significantly higher (P < 0.0001) proportion of apoptotic cells than PBMCs of controls at 0 time as well as after 24-h incubation. Ex vivo apoptosis included all subsets of PBMCs: CD3+ T cells, CD16+ CD56+ natural killer cells, CD19+ B cells, and CD14+ monocytes, as determined by two-color flow cytometry. However, T cells represented the largest PBMC subset undergoing apoptosis, and lymphocytes rather than monocytes were the major TUNEL+ PBMC population. Among T cells, the level of spontaneous ex vivo apoptosis was nearly as high as that of CH-11 antibody-induced or TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis, indicating that activated Fas+ and TNFR1+ T cells were preprogrammed in vivo to die. Also, elevated levels of spontaneous apoptosis at time 0 in patients with head and neck cancer (P < 0.0001) indicated that a higher fraction of PBMCs was undergoing apoptosis in vivo in patients than controls. Together, the data suggest that an increased rate of turnover of lymphocytes is associated with cancer and may be responsible for functional lymphocyte imbalance, even in treated patients who have no evident disease.

Variation of p53 mutational spectra between carcinoma of the upper and lower respiratory tract.

Mutations of the p53 tumor suppressor gene are the most common genetic alterations associated with human cancer. Tumor-associated p53 mutations often show characteristic tissue-specific profiles which may infer environmentally induced mutational mechanisms. The p53 mutational frequency and spectrum were determined for 95 carcinomas of the upper and lower respiratory tract (32 lung and 63 upper respiratory tract). Mutations were identified at a frequency of 30% in upper respiratory tract (URT) tumors and 31% in lung tumors. All 29 identified mutations were single-base substitutions. Comparison of the frequency of specific base substitutions between lung and URT showed a striking difference. Transitions occurred at a frequency of 68% in URT, but only 30% in lung. Mutations involving G:C-->A:T transitions, which are commonly reported in gastric and esophageal tumors, were the most frequently identified alteration in URT (11/19). Mutations involving G:C-->T:A transversions, which were relatively common in lung tumors (3/10) and are representative of tobacco smoke-induced mutations were rare in URT tumors (1/19). Interestingly, G:C-->A:T mutations at CpG sites, which are characteristic of endogenous processes, were observed frequently in URT tumors (9/19) but only rarely in lung tumors (1/10), suggesting that both endogenous and exogenous factors are responsible for the observed differences in mutational spectra between the upper and lower respiratory systems.

Growth stimulation of human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cell lines by interleukin 4.

Interleukin 4 (IL-4) has been reported recently to inhibit growth of acute lymphoblastic lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, melanoma, sarcoma, breast, gastric, colon, and renal tumor cell lines, and treatment of murine tumors with IL-4 gene-transduced cells has been therapeutically successful. Therefore, we sought to determine the effect of IL-4 on the growth of human squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) cell lines. Growth of SCCHN cell lines incubated in the presence of various concentrations of IL-4 was measured in 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide colorimetric assays and by cell counts. Specific binding of IL-4 to SCCHN cells was demonstrated by flow cytometry with phycoerythrin-labeled IL-4, blocking studies with antibodies to IL-4, and using the radiolabeled ligand 125I-labeled IL-4. Reverse transcription PCR for IL-4 and IL-4 receptor (IL-4R) mRNA was performed. SCCHN tissue biopsies were examined by immunohistology and in situ hybridization for the presence of IL-4 protein and IL-4 mRNA in the tumor, respectively. In contrast to earlier reports, we observed growth stimulatory effects of IL-4 consistently in 6 of 13 SCCHN cell lines tested. Growth stimulation by IL-4 ranged from 20 to 200% of control (P < 0.05) and was IL-4 dose dependent. The growth-promoting effect of IL-4 was inhibited completely by incubation of tumor cells in the presence of antibodies specific for IL-4. Reverse transcription PCR analysis of mRNA obtained from the SCCHN cell lines and ELISA performed with SCCHN cell supernatants respectively indicated that the tumor cells did not transcribe or secrete IL-4 actively. The SCCHN cell lines expressed 260-540 IL-4Rs/cell with a dissociation constant of 100 +/- 8 pM. SCCHN cell lines also contained IL-4R mRNA. Immunostaining of SCCHN tissue biopsies indicated that IL-4 may be produced and secreted within these tumors by tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. In situ hybridization for IL-4 mRNA indicated the presence of positive cells in the tumor stroma. Our data suggest that IL-4 may regulate the growth of SCCHN cells by a paracrine mechanism. These data also indicate that immunotherapy with exogenous IL-4 or IL-4 gene therapy to treat head and neck cancer may not be effective, given the potential tumor growth-stimulatory effects of this cytokine.

Immunologic effector cells in head and neck cancer.

Freshly isolated tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) and lymph node lymphocytes (LNL) in patients with head and neck cancer (HNC) often have low or undetectable functional responses. Because impaired ability of these cells to produce cytokines could be responsible for their functional incompetence, spontaneous and in vitro-induced production of interleukin-2 (IL2), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) by TIL, LNL from tumor-free as well as tumor-involved lymph nodes (LN), and peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) were measured. Although TIL or PBL of patients with HNC produced IL-1 beta and TNF-alpha spontaneously or after in vitro activation, LNL did not produce measurable levels of these cytokines. LNL also produced lower levels of IFN-gamma than PBL. In situ hybridization for cytokine mRNA performed with tumor tissues, and LN of patients with HNC showed that TIL as well as LNL localized in the immediate proximity of the tumor were activated, as evidenced by the expression of mRNA for IL2, IFN-gamma, IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, and both alpha- and beta-chains of the IL2 receptor. In addition, many LNL located next to the tumor expressed mRNA for transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). In contrast, LNL not adjacent to the tumor in involved LN, as well as those in tumor-uninvolved LN, did not express mRNA for cytokines or IL2 receptor.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)