The Cost of Opioid Use in High-Risk Hospitalized Infants.

INTRODUCTION: Hospitalizations of high-risk infants are among the most expensive in the United States, with many requiring surgery and months of intensive care. Healthcare costs and resource use associated with hospitalized infant opioid exposure are less well known. METHODS: A retrospective cohort of high-risk infants aged <1 y admitted from 47 children's hospitals from 2010 to 2020 was identified from Pediatric Healthcare Information System. High-risk infants were identified by International Classification of Diseases 9/10 codes for congenital heart disease procedures, medical and surgical necrotizing enterocolitis, extremely low birth weight, very low birth weight, hypoxemic ischemic encephalopathy, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and gastrointestinal tract malformations. Healthcare resource utilization was estimated using standardized unit costs (SUCs). The impact of opioid use on SUC was examined using general linear models and an instrumental variable. RESULTS: Overall, 126,897 high-risk infants were identified. The cohort was majority White (57.1%), non-Hispanic (72.0%), and male (55.4%). Prematurity occurred in 26.4% and a majority underwent surgery (77.9%). Median SUC was $120,585 (interquartile range: $57,602-$276,562) per infant. On instrumental variable analysis, each day of opioid use was associated with an increase of $4406 in SUC. When adjusting for biologic sex, race, ethnicity, insurance type, diagnosis category, number of comorbidities, mechanical ventilation, and total parental nutrition use, each day of opioid use was associated with an increase of $2177 per infant. CONCLUSIONS: Prolonged opioid use is significantly associated with healthcare utilization and costs for high-risk infants, even when accounting for comorbidities, intensive care, ventilation, and total parental nutrition use. Future studies are needed to estimate the long-term complications and additional costs resulting from prolonged opioid exposures in high-risk infants.

Impact of Volumetric Dosimetry on the Projected Cost of Radiation-Related Late Effects Screening After Childhood Cancer: A Real-World Cohort Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Screening guidelines for childhood cancer survivors treated with radiation currently rely on broad anatomic irradiated regions (IR) to determine risk for late effects. However, contemporary radiotherapy techniques use volumetric dosimetry (VD) to define organ-specific exposure, which supports more specific screening recommendations that could be less costly. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study of 132 patients treated with irradiation at Children's Hospital Los Angeles from 2000 to 2016. For 5 key organs (cochlea, breast, heart, lung, and colon), radiation exposure was determined retrospectively using both IR and VD methods. Under each method, Children's Oncology Group Long-Term Follow-Up Guidelines were used to identify organs flagged for screening and recommended screening tests. Projected screening costs incurred under each method were computed through age 65 using insurance claims data. RESULTS: Median age at the end of treatment was 10.6 years (range, 1.4-20.4). Brain tumor was the most common diagnosis (45%) and head/brain the most common irradiated region (61%). For all 5 organs, use of VD rather than IR resulted in fewer recommended screening tests. This led to average cumulative estimated savings of $3769 (P = .099), with significant savings in patients with CNS tumors (P = .012). Among patients with savings, average savings were $9620 per patient (P = .016) and significantly more likely for females than males (P = .027). CONCLUSION: Use of VD to enhance precision of guideline-based screening for radiation-related late effects permits fewer recommended screening tests and generates cost-savings.

Alleviating Financial Hardships Associated with High-Deductible Health Plans for Adults with Chronic Conditions Through Health Savings Accounts.

BACKGROUND: High-deductible health plans (HDHPs) are becoming increasingly common, but their financial implications for enrollees with and without chronic conditions and the mitigating effects of health savings accounts (HSAs) are relatively unknown. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to compare financial hardship between non-HDHPs and HDHPs with and without HSAs, stratified by enrollees' number of chronic conditions. DESIGN: We used data from 2015 to 2018 Medical Expenditure Panels Surveys (MEPS) to compare rates of financial hardship across individuals with HDHPs and non-HDHPs using linear and logistic regression models. PARTICIPANTS: A nationally representative sample of 30,981 adults aged 18-64 enrolled in HDHPs and non-HDHPs. MAIN MEASURES: We examined several measures of financial hardship, including total yearly out-of-pocket medical spending as well as rates of delaying medical care or prescriptions in the past year due to cost, forgoing medical care or prescriptions in the past year due to cost, paying medical bills over time, or having problems paying medical bills. We compared rates using the non-HDHP as the control. KEY RESULTS: On most measures, HDHPs are associated with greater financial hardship compared to non-HDHPs, including average annual out-of-pocket spending of $637 for non-HDHPs, $939 for HDHPs with HSAs, and $825 for HDHPs without HSAs (p < 0.01). However, for HDHP enrollees with multiple chronic conditions, having an HSA was associated with less financial hardship (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that HSAs may be most beneficial for those with chronic conditions, in part due to the tax benefits they offer as well as the fact that those with chronic conditions are more likely to take advantage of their HSAs than their younger, healthier counterparts. However, as HDHPs are more likely to be correlated with worse financial outcomes regardless of health status, recent trends of increasing participation may be a reason for concern.

Effects of Medicare Part D coverage gap closure on utilization of branded and generic drugs.

The Affordable Care Act included a provision to gradually eliminate the Medicare prescription drug coverage gap between 2011 and 2020, which substantially lower medication costs in the gap. Using 2007-2016 Medicare claims data, we estimate how filling the gap affects individuals' out-of-pocket spending and medication use, separately for branded and generic drugs. One important difficulty in estimating the policy impact is that around the same time, many blockbuster drugs commonly used by the Medicare population experienced patent expiration and began to see generic entry. Because generic entries affected different therapeutic classes at different times, we run difference-in-differences models by therapeutic category at the beneficiary-month level to isolate the effect of the gap closure from that of generic entry. Overall, we find that filling the gap substantially reduced out-of-pocket spending and increased the use of branded drugs, which had larger discount rates during the analysis period. Beneficiaries reaching the gap, at older ages, or with comorbidities experienced larger reduction in out-of-pocket spending. We show that without accounting for generic entry, the effect of filling the coverage gap on medication use is underestimated for branded drugs and overestimated for generic drugs.

Differential Effects by Mental Health Status of Filling the Medicare Part D Coverage Gap.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to study how changes in insurance benefit design affect medication use of older adults with mental disorders. DATA SOURCES: US Medicare claims data from 2007 to 2018. STUDY DESIGN: Exploiting the gradual elimination of the Medicare prescription drug coverage gap beginning in 2011, we examine the effects on medication use and out-of-pocket spending by drug type with a difference-in-differences approach. We identify subpopulations by mental disorder and compare the estimates across mental health groups and to the general Medicare population. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Closing the gap substantially reduced individuals' out-of-pocket spending, and the reduction was larger for those with more severe mental disorders. The policy led to a statistically significant increase in branded drugs used for the Medicare population (0.91; P<0.01; 12.12% increase), beneficiaries with severe mental disorders (2.71; P<0.01; 11.13% increase), and common mental disorders (2.63; P<0.01; 11.62% increase), whereas such effect for beneficiaries with Alzheimer disease and dementia (AD) is substantially smaller (0.44; P<0.01; 1.83% increase). In contrast, the policy decreased generic drugs used by about 3%-5% for all groups. Overall, beneficiaries without mental health illness have a statistically significant increase in total medication use (2.05%) following the coverage gap closure, while all 3 mental health groups have either no statistically significant changes or a small reduction in total mediation use (AD, -1.26%). CONCLUSIONS: Patients' responses to price changes vary across mental disorders and by drug type. The impact on branded drug utilization among those with AD is particularly small. Our findings suggest that lowering medication costs has differential impacts across diseases and may not be sufficient to improve adherence for all conditions, in particular those with severe mental health disorders such as AD.

Preventing Financial Strain for Low- and Moderate-Income Adults: a Comparison of Medicaid, Marketplace, and Employer-Sponsored Insurance.

BACKGROUND: Medicaid expansion and subsidized private plans purchased on the Affordable Care Act's (ACA) Marketplaces accounted for most of the ACA's coverage gains. OBJECTIVE: Compare access to care and financial strain between Medicaid and Marketplace plans, and benchmark these against employer-sponsored insurance (ESI) plans. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey PARTICIPANTS: A nationally representative, non-institutionalized sample of 37,219 non-elderly adults with incomes up to 400% of the federal poverty level between 2015 and 2018, and a sub-group of individuals with chronic diseases. MAIN MEASURES: Self-reported barriers to accessing care, cost-related medication non-adherence, and financial strain. KEY RESULTS: Marketplace enrollees were more likely than Medicaid enrollees to delay or avoid care due to cost (19.3% vs 10.0%; adjusted difference (AD), 8.6 [95% CI, 6.8 to 10.4]) and report difficulties affording specialty care (7.7% vs 6.6%; AD, 1.8% [95% CI, 0.3% to 3.3%]), while there were no differences in having insurance accepted by a doctor or ability to afford dental care. Marketplace enrollees were also more likely to report cost-related medication non-adherence (21.5% vs 20.0%; AD, 4.0 [CI, 1.5 to 6.4]), be very worried about not being able to pay medical costs in case of a serious accident (32.3% vs 25.8%; AD, 6.4 [CI, 4.2 to 8.6]), have expenses exceeding $2000 (22.4% vs 5.4%; AD, 8.3 [CI, 6.2 to 10.3]), and have problems paying medical bills (18.4% vs 15.6%; AD, 1.8 [CI, 0.3 to 3.9]). Marketplace-Medicaid differences were larger among persons with a chronic disease. Individuals in ESI plans fared better for most, but not all, outcomes. CONCLUSION: Medicaid offers better protections than Marketplace plans on most measures of access and financial strain.

Combined impact of Medicare's hospital pay for performance programs on quality and safety outcomes is mixed.

BACKGROUND: Three major hospital pay for performance (P4P) programs were introduced by the Affordable Care Act and intended to improve the quality, safety and efficiency of care provided to Medicare beneficiaries. The financial risk to hospitals associated with Medicare's P4P programs is substantial. Evidence on the positive impact of these programs, however, has been mixed, and no study has assessed their combined impact. In this study, we examined the combined impact of Medicare's P4P programs on clinical areas and populations targeted by the programs, as well as those outside their focus. METHODS: We used 2007-2016 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project State Inpatient Databases for 14 states to identify hospital-level inpatient quality indicators (IQIs) and patient safety indicators (PSIs), by quarter and payer (Medicare vs. non-Medicare). IQIs and PSIs are standardized, evidence-based measures that can be used to track hospital quality of care and patient safety over time using hospital administrative data. The study period of 2007-2016 was selected to capture multiple years before and after introduction of program metrics. Interrupted time series was used to analyze the impact of the P4P programs on study outcomes targeted and not targeted by the programs. In sensitivity analyses, we examined the impact of these programs on care for non-Medicare patients. RESULTS: Medicare P4P programs were not associated with consistent improvements in targeted or non-targeted quality and safety measures. Moreover, mortality rates across targeted and untargeted conditions were generally getting worse after the introduction of Medicare's P4P programs. Trends in PSIs were extremely mixed, with five outcomes trending in an expected (improving) direction, five trending in an unexpected (deteriorating) direction, and three with insignificant changes over time. Sensitivity analyses did not substantially alter these results. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with previous studies for individual programs, we detect minimal, if any, effect of Medicare's hospital P4P programs on quality and safety. Given the growing evidence of limited impact, the administrative cost of monitoring and enforcing penalties, and potential increase in mortality, CMS should consider redesigning their P4P programs before continuing to expand them.

Assessing the Feasibility of an Online Training Designed to Enable Community Health Workers to Deliver a Comprehensive, Evidence-Based Weight Loss Intervention for Rural African Americans of Faith.

Obesity is a critical modifiable risk factor in cancer prevention, control, and survivorship. Comprehensive weight loss interventions (e.g., Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP)) have been recommended by governmental agencies to treat obesity. However, their high implementation costs limit their reach, especially in underserved African American (AA) communities. Community health workers (CHWs) or trusted community members can help increase access to obesity interventions in underserved regions facing provider shortages. CHW-led interventions have increased weight loss. However, in-person CHW training can be costly to deliver and often requires extensive travel to implement. Web-based trainings have become common to increase reach at reduced cost. However, the feasibility of an online CHW training to deliver the DPP in AAs is unknown. The feasibility of an online CHW training to deliver the DPP adapted for AAs was assessed. The online training was compared to an in-person DPP training with established effectiveness. CHW effectiveness and satisfaction were assessed at baseline and 6 weeks. Nineteen participants (in-person n = 10; online n = 9) were recruited. At post-training, all scored higher than the 80% on a knowledge test required to deliver the intervention. All participants reported high levels of training satisfaction (88.9% of online participants and 90% of in-person participants rated the training as at least 6 on a 1-7 scale) and comfort to complete intervention tasks (78% of online participants and 60% of in-person participants scored at least 6 on a 1-7 scale). There were no significant differences in outcomes by arm. An online CHW training to deliver the DPP adapted for AAs faith communities produced comparable effectiveness and satisfaction to an evidence-based in-person CHW training. Further research is needed to assess the cost-effectiveness of different CHW training modalities to reduce obesity.

How Have 30-Day Readmission Penalties Affected Racial Disparities in Readmissions?: an Analysis from 2007 to 2014 in Five US States.

BACKGROUND: Thirty-day readmission penalties implemented with the Hospital Readmission Reduction Program (HRRP) place a larger burden on safety-net hospitals which treat a disproportionate share of racial minorities, leading to concerns that already large racial disparities in readmissions could widen. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether there were changes in Black-White disparities in 30-day readmissions for acute myocardial infarction (AMI), congestive heart failure (CHF), or pneumonia following the passage and implementation of HRRP, and to compare disparities across safety-net and non-safety-net hospitals. DESIGN: Repeated cross-sectional analysis, stratified by safety-net status. SUBJECTS: 1,745,686 Medicare patients over 65 discharged alive from hospitals in 5 US states: NY, FL, NE, WA, and AR. MAIN MEASURES: Odds ratios comparing 30-day readmission rates following an index admission for AMI, CHF, or pneumonia for Black and White patients between 2007 and 2014. KEY RESULTS: Prior to the passage of HRRP in 2010, Black and White readmission rates and disparities in readmissions were decreasing. These reductions were largest at safety-net hospitals. In 2007, Blacks had 13% higher odds of readmission if treated in safety-net hospitals, compared with 5% higher odds in 2010 (P < 0.05). These trends continued following the passage of HRRP. CONCLUSIONS: Prior to HRRP, there were large reductions in Black-White disparities in readmissions at safety-net hospitals. Although HRRP tends to assess higher penalties for safety-net hospitals, improvements in readmissions have not reversed following the implementation of HRRP. In contrast, disparities continue to persist at non-safety-net hospitals which face much lower penalties.

Three years in - changing plan features in the U.S. health insurance marketplace.

BACKGROUND: A central objective of recent U.S. healthcare policy reform, most notably the Affordable Care Act's (ACA) Health Insurance Marketplace, has been to increase access to stable, affordable health insurance. However, changing market dynamics (rising premiums, changes in issuer participation and plan availability) raise significant concerns about the marketplaces' ability to provide a stable source of healthcare for Americans that rely on them. By looking at the effect of instability on changes in the consumer choice set, we can analyze potential incentives to switch plans among price-sensitive enrollees, which can then be used to inform policy going forward. METHODS: Data on health plan features for non-tobacco users in 2512 counties in 34 states participating in federally-facilitated exchanges from 2014 to 2016 was obtained from the Centers for Medicaid & Medicare Services. We examined how changes in individual plan features, including premiums, deductibles, issuers, and plan types, impact consumers who had purchased the lowest-cost silver or bronze plan in their county the previous year. We calculated the cost of staying in the same plan versus switching to another plan the following year, and analyzed how costs vary across geographic regions. RESULTS: In most counties in 2015 and 2016 (53.7 and 68.2%, respectively), the lowest-cost silver plan from the previous year was still available, but was no longer the cheapest plan. In these counties, consumers who switched to the new lowest-cost plan would pay less in monthly premiums on average, by $51.48 and $55.01, respectively, compared to staying in the same plan. Despite potential premium savings from switching, however, the majority would still pay higher average premiums compared to the previous year, and most would face higher deductibles and an increased probability of having to change provider networks. CONCLUSION: While the ACA has shown promise in expanding healthcare access, continued changes in the availability and affordability of health plans are likely to result in churning and switching among enrollees, which may have negative ramifications for their health going forward. Future healthcare policy reform should aim to stabilize marketplace dynamics in order to encourage greater care continuity and limit churning.

Anticipatory Behavior in Response to Medicare Part D's Coverage Gap.

Under the standard Medicare Part D benefit structure, copayments for medications change discontinuously at certain levels of accumulative drug spending. Beneficiaries pay 25% of the cost of medications in the initial phase, 100% in the coverage gap, and 5% in the catastrophic phase. We examine whether individuals anticipate these copayment changes and adjust their consumption in advance. We use variation in birth-months of beneficiaries who enroll in Part D plans when they first turn 65. Birth-months generate exogenous variation in the end-of-year price because those who enroll earlier in the year are more likely to reach the coverage gap than those who enroll later. We study the impact of variation in end-of-year price on the first three months of medication use immediately following enrollment. We use difference-in-differences to adjust for seasonal trends in use, by comparing our main study group with those who receive low-income subsidies, and therefore do not face a coverage gap. We find strong evidence of anticipatory behavior, with an implied elasticity with respect to future prices ranging from -0.2 to -0.5. In addition, we find that beneficiaries modify their consumption by changing the quantity of prescriptions filled, instead of switching between brand-name and generic drugs. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Tobacco Surcharges on 2015 Health Insurance Plans Sold in Federally Facilitated Marketplaces: Variations by Age and Geography and Implications for Health Equity.

In 2014, few health insurance plans sold in the Affordable Care Act's Federally Facilitated Marketplaces had age-dependent tobacco surcharges, possibly because of a system glitch. The 2015 tobacco surcharges show wide variation, with more plans implementing tobacco surcharges that increase with age. This underscores concerns that older tobacco users will find postsubsidy health insurance premiums difficult to afford. Future monitoring of enrollment will determine whether tobacco surcharges cause adverse selection by dissuading tobacco users, particularly older users, from buying health insurance.

The U.S. health insurance marketplace: are premiums truly affordable?

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act requires that individuals have health insurance or pay a penalty. Individuals are exempt from paying this penalty if the after-subsidy cost of the least-expensive plan available to them is greater than 8% of their income. For this study, premium data for all health plans offered on the state and federal health insurance marketplaces were collected; the after-subsidy cost of premiums for the least-expensive bronze plan for every county in the United States was calculated; and variations in premium affordability by age, income, and geographic area were assessed. Results indicated that-although marketplace subsidies ensure affordable health insurance for most persons in the United States-many individuals with incomes just above the subsidy threshold will lack affordable coverage and will be exempt from the mandate. Furthermore, young individuals with low incomes often pay as much as or more than older individuals for bronze plans. If substantial numbers of younger, healthier adults choose to remain uninsured because of cost, health insurance premiums across all ages may increase over time.

The January effect: medication reinitiation among Medicare Part D beneficiaries.

The Medicare prescription drug program (Part D) standard benefit includes deductible, initial coverage, coverage gap and catastrophic coverage phases. As beneficiaries enter each phase, their out-of-pocket medication costs change discontinuously. The benefit cycle restarts on 1 January of the next year. Taking advantage of variation in drug coverage, we study how individuals reinitiate discontinued medications in response to the non-linear price schedule. Because some beneficiaries who receive low-income subsidies (LIS) have zero or fixed small copayments throughout the year, we perform a difference-in-difference analysis by using the LIS group as a comparison. We find that individuals delay reinitiating important medications in December and are significantly more likely to reinitiate in January than in other months. Although we find some evidence that reinitiation is lower in the final months of the year, it is mostly driven by those who face higher prices due to the coverage gap. Our study suggests that individuals respond more to the current price of medications and do not anticipate future prices as well as theory would suggest.

Disparities in access to COVID-19 testing in Los Angeles County.

COVID-19 has disparately impacted low-income persons and racial and ethnic minorities-primarily Black and Hispanic populations. Our objective is to quantify disparities in access to COVID-19 testing and identify barriers to testing during the winter 2020-2021 surge in COVID-19 infections in Los Angeles County. An online survey was administered between December 2020 and January 2021 through which respondents were asked about their use of COVID testing and the barriers to testing they experienced. Our sample of 1,984 was reweighted to match the demographics of Los Angeles County. Despite similar testing rates to White residents, Hispanic residents were more likely to report testing positive. Persons with an annual income of $20,000 or less were less likely to receive a test than those with an income of $100,000 or more. Barriers to testing were more prevalent among racial/ethnic minorities and low-income persons. White respondents and high-income persons were more likely to report the ability to take time off work to await test results. Rates of testing were not commensurate with the rates of infection across racial/ethnic groups, which may be explained by higher rates of reported barriers to testing among Black and Hispanic residents. These findings may inform policies that address structural barriers to testing that disproportionately impact racial/ethnic minorities and low-income populations.

The Impact of Prescription Drug Coverage on Disparities in Adherence and Medication Use: A Systematic Review.

Prescription drug cost-sharing is a barrier to medication adherence, particularly for low-income and minority populations. In this systematic review, we examined the impact of prescription drug cost-sharing and policies to reduce cost-sharing on racial/ethnic and income disparities in medication utilization. We screened 2,145 titles and abstracts and identified 19 peer-reviewed papers that examined the interaction between cost-sharing and racial/ethnic and income disparities in medication adherence or utilization. We found weak but inconsistent evidence that lower cost-sharing is associated with reduced disparities in adherence and utilization, but studies consistently found that significant disparities remained even after adjusting for differences in cost-sharing across individuals. Study designs varied in their ability to measure the causal effect of policy or cost-sharing changes on disparities, and a wide range of policies were examined across studies. Further research is needed to identify the types of policies that are best suited to reduce disparities in medication adherence.

The impact of COVID-19 on racial and ethnic disparities in presentation with perforated appendicitis in children: A retrospective cohort study.

Background: Children from racial and ethnic minority groups have higher prevalence of perforated appendicitis, and the COVID-19 pandemic worsened racial and ethnic health-related disparities. We hypothesized that the incidence of perforated appendicitis worsened for children from racial and ethnic minorities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study of the Pediatric Health Information System for children ages 2-18y undergoing appendectomy pre-pandemic (3/19/2019-3/18/2020) and intra-pandemic (3/19/2020-3/30/2021). The primary outcome was presentation with perforated appendicitis. Multivariable logistic regression with mixed effects estimated the likelihood of presentation with perforated appendicitis. Covariates included race, ethnicity, pandemic status, Child Opportunity Index, gender, insurance, age, and hospital region. Results: Overall, 33,727 children underwent appendectomy: 16,048 (47.6 %) were Non-Hispanic White, 12,709 (37.7 %) were Hispanic, 2261 (6.7 %) were Non-Hispanic Black, 960 (2.8 %) were Asian, and 1749 (5.2 %) Other. Overall perforated appendicitis rates were unchanged during the pandemic (37.4 % intra-pandemic, 36.4 % pre-pandemic, p = 0.06). Hispanic children were more likely to present with perforated appendicitis intra-pandemic versus pre-pandemic (OR 1.18, 95%CI: 1.07, 1.13). Hispanic children had higher odds of perforated appendicitis versus Non-Hispanic White children pre-pandemic (OR 1.10, 95%CI: 1.00, 1.20) which increased intra-pandemic (OR 1.19, 95%CI: 1.09, 1.30). Publicly-insured children had increased odds of perforated appendicitis intra-pandemic versus pre-pandemic (OR 1.14, 95%CI: 1.03, 1.25), and had increased odds of perforated appendicitis versus privately-insured children (intra-pandemic OR 1.26, 95%CI: 1.16, 1.36; pre-pandemic OR 1.12, 95%CI: 1.04, 1.22). Conclusions: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Hispanic and publicly-insured children were more likely to present with perforated appendicitis, suggesting that the pandemic exacerbated existing disparities in healthcare for children with appendicitis. Key message: We found that Hispanic children and children with public insurance were more likely to present with perforated appendicitis during the COVID-19 pandemic. Public health efforts aimed at ameliorating racial and ethnic disparities created during the COVID-19 pandemic should consider increasing healthcare access for Hispanic children to address bias, racism, and systemic barriers that may prevent families from seeking care.

Institutional and Regional Variation in Opioid Prescribing for Hospitalized Infants in the US.

Importance: High-risk infants, defined as newborns with substantial neonatal-perinatal morbidities, often undergo multiple procedures and require prolonged intubation, resulting in extended opioid exposure that is associated with poor outcomes. Understanding variation in opioid prescribing can inform quality improvement and best-practice initiatives. Objective: To examine regional and institutional variation in opioid prescribing, including short- and long-acting agents, in high-risk hospitalized infants. Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cohort study assessed high-risk infants younger than 1 year from January 1, 2016, to December 31, 2022, at 47 children's hospitals participating in the Pediatric Health Information System (PHIS). The cohort was stratified by US Census region (Northeast, South, Midwest, and West). Variation in cumulative days of opioid exposure and methadone treatment was examined among institutions using a hierarchical generalized linear model. High-risk infants were identified by International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision codes for congenital heart disease surgery, medical and surgical necrotizing enterocolitis, extremely low birth weight, very low birth weight, hypoxemic ischemic encephalopathy, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and other abdominal surgery. Infants with neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome, in utero substance exposure, or malignant tumors were excluded. Exposure: Any opioid exposure and methadone treatment. Main Outcomes and Measures: Regional and institutional variations in opioid exposure. Results: Overall, 132 658 high-risk infants were identified (median [IQR] gestational age, 34 [28-38] weeks; 54.5% male). Prematurity occurred in 30.3%, and 55.3% underwent surgery. During hospitalization, 76.5% of high-risk infants were exposed to opioids and 7.9% received methadone. Median (IQR) length of any opioid exposure was 5 (2-12) cumulative days, and median (IQR) length of methadone treatment was 19 (7-46) cumulative days. There was significant hospital-level variation in opioid and methadone exposure and cumulative days of exposure within each US region. The computed intraclass correlation coefficient estimated that 16% of the variability in overall opioid prescribing and 20% of the variability in methadone treatment was attributed to the individual hospital. Conclusions and Relevance: In this retrospective cohort study of high-risk hospitalized infants, institution-level variation in overall opioid exposure and methadone treatment persisted across the US. These findings highlight the need for standardization of opioid prescribing in this vulnerable population.

Race Differences in Patient-Reported Symptoms during Chemotherapy among Women with Early-Stage Hormone Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Symptom burden differences may contribute to racial disparities in breast cancer survival. We compared symptom changes from before to during chemotherapy among women with breast cancer. METHODS: This observational study followed a cohort of Black and White women diagnosed with Stage I-III, hormone receptor-positive breast cancer from a large cancer center in 2007 to 2015, and reported symptoms before and during chemotherapy. We identified patients who experienced a one-standard deviation (SD) increase in symptom burden after starting chemotherapy using four validated composite scores (General Physical Symptoms, Treatment Side Effects, Acute Distress, and Despair). Kitagawa-Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition was used to quantify race differences in symptom changes explained by baseline characteristics (sociodemographic, baseline scores, cancer stage) and first-line chemotherapy regimens. RESULTS: Among 1,273 patients, Black women (n = 405, 31.8%) were more likely to report one-SD increase in General Physical Symptoms (55.6% vs. 48.2%, P = 0.015), Treatment Side Effects (74.0% vs. 63.4%, P < 0.001), and Acute Distress (27.4% vs. 20.0%, P = 0.010) than White women. Baseline characteristics and first-line chemotherapy regimens explained a large and significant proportion of the difference in Acute Distress changes (93.7%, P = 0.001), but not General Physical Symptoms (25.7%, P = 0.25) or Treatment Side Effects (16.4%, P = 0.28). CONCLUSIONS: Black women with early-stage breast cancer were more likely to experience significant increases in physical and psychological symptom burden during chemotherapy. Most of the difference in physical symptom changes remained unexplained by baseline characteristics, which suggests inadequate symptom management among Black women. IMPACT: Future studies should identify strategies to improve symptom management among Black women and reduce differences in symptom burden. See related commentary by Rosenzweig and Mazanec, p. 157.

Provision of Food Allergy Care in the United Kingdom and United States: Current Issues and Future Directions.

Food allergy (FA) is a growing issue worldwide. The United Kingdom and United States are high-income, industrialized countries with reported increases in FA prevalence over the past few decades. This review compares delivery of FA care in the United Kingdom and United States and each country's response to the heightened demand and disparities for FA services. In the United Kingdom, allergy specialists are scarce and general practitioners (GPs) provide most allergy care. Whereas the United States has more allergists per capita than the United Kingdom, there is still a shortage of allergy services owing to the greater reliance on specialist care for FA in America and wide geographic variation in access to allergist services. Currently, generalists in these countries lack the specialty training and equipment to diagnose and manage FA optimally. Moving forward, the United Kingdom aims to enhance training for GPs so they may provide better quality frontline allergy care. In addition, the United Kingdom is implementing a new tier of semi-specialized GPs and increasing cross-center collaboration through clinical networks. The United Kingdom and United States aim to increase the number of FA specialists, which is critical at a time of rapidly expanding management options for allergic and immunologic diseases requiring clinical expertise and shared decision-making to select appropriate therapies. While these countries aim to grow their supply of quality FA services actively, further efforts to build clinical networks and perhaps recruit international medical graduates and expand telehealth services are necessary to reduce disparities in access to care. For the United Kingdom in particular, increasing quality services will require additional support from the leadership of the centralized National Health Service, which remains challenging.