Evaluation of Empirical Dosing Regimens for Meropenem in Intensive Care Unit Patients Using Population Pharmacokinetic Modeling and Target Attainment Analysis.

In the present study, population pharmacokinetic (PK) analysis was performed based on meropenem data from a prospective study conducted in 114 critically ill patients with a wide range of renal functions and various disease conditions. The final model was a one-compartment model with linear elimination, with creatinine clearance and continuous renal replacement therapy affecting clearance, and total bodyweight impacting the volume of distribution. Our model is a valuable addition to the existing meropenem population PK models, and it could be particularly useful during implementation of a therapeutic drug monitoring program combined with Bayesian forecasting. Based on the final model developed, comprehensive Monte Carlo simulations were performed to evaluate the probability of target attainment (PTA) of 16 different dosing regimens. Simulation results showed that 2 g administered every 8 h with 3-h prolonged infusion (PI) and 4 g/day by continuous infusion (CI) appear to be two empirical dosing regimens that are superior to many other regimens when both target attainment and potential toxicity are considered and renal function information is not available. Following a daily CI dose of 6 g or higher, more than 30% of the population with a creatinine clearance of <60 mL/min is predicted to have neurotoxicity. With the availability of institution- and/or unit-specific meropenem susceptibility patterns, as well as an individual patient's renal function, our PTA results may represent useful references for physicians to make dosing decisions.

Population pharmacokinetics and target attainment analyses to identify a rational empirical dosing strategy for cefepime in critically ill patients.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to identify rational empirical dosing strategies for cefepime treatment in critically ill patients by utilizing population pharmacokinetics and target attainment analysis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A prospective and opportunistic pharmacokinetic (PK) study was conducted in 130 critically ill patients in two ICU sites. The plasma concentrations of cefepime were determined using a validated LC-MS/MS method. All cefepime PK data were analysed simultaneously using the non-linear mixed-effects modelling approach. Monte Carlo simulations were performed to evaluate the PTA of cefepime at different MIC values following different dose regimens in subjects with different renal functions. RESULTS: The PK of cefepime in critically ill patients was best characterized by a two-compartment model with zero-order input and first-order elimination. Creatinine clearance and body weight were identified to be significant covariates. Our simulation results showed that prolonged 3 h infusion does not provide significant improvement on target attainment compared with the traditional intermittent 0.5 h infusion. In contrast, for a given daily dose continuous infusion provided much higher breakpoint coverage than either 0.5 h or 3 h intermittent infusions. To balance the target attainment and potential neurotoxicity, cefepime 3 g/day continuous infusion appears to be a better dosing regimen than 6 g/day continuous infusion. CONCLUSIONS: Continuous infusion may represent a promising strategy for cefepime treatment in critically ill patients. With the availability of institution- and/or unit-specific cefepime susceptibility patterns as well as individual patients' renal function, our PTA results may represent useful references for physicians to make dosing decisions.

Systematic Down-Selection of Repurposed Drug Candidates for COVID-19.

SARS-CoV-2 is the cause of the COVID-19 pandemic which has claimed more than 6.5 million lives worldwide, devastating the economy and overwhelming healthcare systems globally. The development of new drug molecules and vaccines has played a critical role in managing the pandemic; however, new variants of concern still pose a significant threat as the current vaccines cannot prevent all infections. This situation calls for the collaboration of biomedical scientists and healthcare workers across the world. Repurposing approved drugs is an effective way of fast-tracking new treatments for recently emerged diseases. To this end, we have assembled and curated a database consisting of 7817 compounds from the Compounds Australia Open Drug collection. We developed a set of eight filters based on indicators of efficacy and safety that were applied sequentially to down-select drugs that showed promise for drug repurposing efforts against SARS-CoV-2. Considerable effort was made to evaluate approximately 14,000 assay data points for SARS-CoV-2 FDA/TGA-approved drugs and provide an average activity score for 3539 compounds. The filtering process identified 12 FDA-approved molecules with established safety profiles that have plausible mechanisms for treating COVID-19 disease. The methodology developed in our study provides a template for prioritising drug candidates that can be repurposed for the safe, efficacious, and cost-effective treatment of COVID-19, long COVID, or any other future disease. We present our database in an easy-to-use interactive interface (CoviRx that was also developed to enable the scientific community to access to the data of over 7000 potential drugs and to implement alternative prioritisation and down-selection strategies.

Evaluation of medical emergency team medication management practices in acute hospitals: A multicentre study.

BACKGROUND: Medical emergency teams use medications to rescue deteriorating patients. Medication management is the system of steps and processes, including prescribing, distribution, administration, and monitoring, to achieve the best outcomes from medication use. Systems or standards for medication management by medical emergency teams have not been defined. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to propose potential solutions to improve medical emergency team medication management by evaluating medication supply and related medication management practices during medical emergency team activations and understanding clinicians' perceptions about medical emergency team medication management in acute hospitals. METHODS: A prospective multicentre audit of intensive care unit-equipped hospitals in Victoria, Australia, was conducted. After advertisement and invitation via scheduled email newsletters to hospitals, a representative of the medical emergency team from each hospital self-administered an online audit tool during December 2019 and January 2020. Audit data were analysed descriptively, and perceptions were analysed using content analysis. RESULTS: Responses were received from 32 of the 44 (72.7%) eligible hospitals. At 17 of the 32 (53.1%) hospitals, arrest trolleys provided medications for medical emergency team activations, in addition to arrest calls. At 15 of the 32 (46.9%) hospitals, separate, dedicated medical emergency team medication supplies were used to care for deteriorating patients. Dedicated medical emergency team supplies contained a median of 20 (range = 8-37) medications, predominantly cardiovascular (median = 8, mode = 7, range = 4-16) and neurological medications (median and mode = 6, range = 0-11). Variation was observed in all storage and other supply-related medication management practices studied. The four most frequent categories of clinicians' perceptions described systematic challenges with availability of the right medication in the right place at the right time. CONCLUSIONS: Current supply and related medication management practices and clinicians' perceptions demonstrated further development is necessary for medication management to meet the needs of medical emergency team clinicians and their patients.

Using in silico viral kinetic models to guide therapeutic strategies during a pandemic: An example in SARS-CoV-2.

AIMS: We propose the use of in silico mathematical models to provide insights that optimize therapeutic interventions designed to effectively treat respiratory infection during a pandemic. A modelling and simulation framework is provided using SARS-CoV-2 as an example, considering applications for both treatment and prophylaxis. METHODS: A target cell-limited model was used to quantify the viral infection dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 in a pooled population of 105 infected patients. Parameter estimates from the resulting model were used to simulate and compare the impact of various interventions against meaningful viral load endpoints. RESULTS: Robust parameter estimates were obtained for the basic reproduction number, viral release rate and infected-cell mortality from the infection model. These estimates were informed by the largest dataset currently available for SARS-CoV-2 viral time course. The utility of this model was demonstrated using simulations, which hypothetically introduced inhibitory or stimulatory drug mechanisms at various target sites within the viral life-cycle. We show that early intervention is crucial to achieving therapeutic benefit when monotherapy is administered. In contrast, combination regimens of two or three drugs may provide improved outcomes if treatment is initiated late. The latter is relevant to SARS-CoV-2, where the period between infection and symptom onset is relatively long. CONCLUSIONS: The use of in silico models can provide viral load predictions that can rationalize therapeutic strategies against an emerging viral pathogen.

Model-informed drug repurposing: A pharmacometric approach to novel pathogen preparedness, response and retrospection.

During a pandemic caused by a novel pathogen (NP), drug repurposing offers the potential of a rapid treatment response via a repurposed drug (RD) while more targeted treatments are developed. Five steps of model-informed drug repurposing (MIDR) are discussed: (i) utilize RD product label and in vitro NP data to determine initial proof of potential, (ii) optimize potential posology using clinical pharmacokinetics (PK) considering both efficacy and safety, (iii) link events in the viral life cycle to RD PK, (iv) link RD PK to clinical and virologic outcomes, and optimize clinical trial design, and (v) assess RD treatment effects from trials using model-based meta-analysis. Activities which fall under these five steps are categorized into three stages: what can be accomplished prior to an NP emergence (preparatory stage), during the NP pandemic (responsive stage) and once the crisis has subsided (retrospective stage). MIDR allows for extraction of a greater amount of information from emerging data and integration of disparate data into actionable insight.

Population pharmacokinetics of free flucloxacillin in patients treated with oral flucloxacillin plus probenecid.

Oral flucloxacillin may be coadministered with probenecid to reduce flucloxacillin clearance and increase attainment of pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) targets. The aims of this study were to develop a population PK model of free flucloxacillin when administered orally with probenecid, and to identify optimal dosing regimens for this combination. METHODS: We performed a prospective observational study of adults (45 participants) treated with oral flucloxacillin 1000 mg and probenecid 500 mg 8-hourly for proven or probable staphylococcal infections. Steady-state mid-dose-interval flucloxacillin measurements (45 concentrations) were combined with existing data from a crossover study of healthy participants receiving flucloxacillin with and without probenecid (11 participants, 363 concentrations). We developed a population pharmacokinetic model of free flucloxacillin concentrations within Monolix, and used Monte Carlo simulation to explore optimal dosing regimens to attain PK/PD targets proposed in the literature (free drug time above minimum inhibitory concentration). RESULTS: Flucloxacillin disposition was best described by a 1-compartment model with a lag time and first-order absorption. Free flucloxacillin clearance depended on probenecid, allometrically-scaled fat free mass (FFM) and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Predicted PK/PD target attainment was suboptimal with standard dosing regimens with flucloxacillin alone, but substantially improved in the presence of probenecid. CONCLUSION: The simulation results reported can be used to identify dose regimens that optimise flucloxacillin exposure according to eGFR and FFM. Patients with higher FFM and eGFR may require the addition of probenecid and 6-hourly dosing to achieve PK/PD targets. The regimen was well-tolerated, suggesting a potential for further evaluation in controlled clinical trials to establish efficacy.

Reducing Medical Admissions and Presentations Into Hospital through Optimising Medicines (REMAIN HOME): a stepped wedge, cluster randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether integrating pharmacists into general practices reduces the number of unplanned re-admissions of patients recently discharged from hospital. DESIGN, SETTING: Stepped wedge, cluster randomised trial in 14 general practices in southeast Queensland. PARTICIPANTS: Adults discharged from one of seven study hospitals during the seven days preceding recruitment (22 May 2017 - 14 March 2018) and prescribed five or more long term medicines, or having a primary discharge diagnosis of congestive heart failure or exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. INTERVENTION: Comprehensive face-to-face medicine management consultation with an integrated practice pharmacist within seven days of discharge, followed by a consultation with their general practitioner and further pharmacist consultations as needed. MAJOR OUTCOMES: Rates of unplanned, all-cause hospital re-admissions and emergency department (ED) presentations 12 months after hospital discharge; incremental net difference in overall costs. RESULTS: By 12 months, there had been 282 re-admissions among 177 control patients (incidence rate [IR], 1.65 per person-year) and 136 among 129 intervention patients (IR, 1.09 per person-year; fully adjusted IR ratio [IRR], 0.79; 95% CI, 0.52-1.18). ED presentation incidence (fully adjusted IRR, 0.46; 95% CI, 0.22-0.94) and combined re-admission and ED presentation incidence (fully adjusted IRR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.48-0.99) were significantly lower for intervention patients. The estimated incremental net cost benefit of the intervention was $5072 per patient, with a benefit-cost ratio of 31:1. CONCLUSION: A collaborative pharmacist-GP model of post-hospital discharge medicines management can reduce the incidence of hospital re-admissions and ED presentations, achieving substantial cost savings to the health system. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN12616001627448 (prospective).

New Horizons in the impact of frailty on pharmacokinetics: latest developments.

Frail older people have a high prevalence of drug use and are susceptible to adverse drug reactions. The physiological changes of frailty are likely to affect pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. We reviewed the methods and findings of published studies of pharmacokinetics in frailty. Nine studies describing pharmacokinetics and an additional three of pharmacokinetic pathways in frail older people were identified. Most pharmacokinetic studies investigated a single administration of a medication, dose or formulation, in small populations, often with limited representation of males or females, and applied variable definitions of frailty. Pharmacokinetic sampling designs generally utilised saturated sampling followed by analysis based on the trapezoidal rule for area under the curve, with more recent studies using sparser sampling and more sophisticated modelling to obtain individual and population values of all pharmacokinetic parameters. Overall, the pharmacokinetic studies reported only small changes in some parameters for some drugs with frailty, with the most consistent change reduced hepatic clearance in frail older people. Recommendations for future studies of pharmacokinetics in frailty include (i) standard objective definitions of frailty; (ii) larger studies including people with mild, moderate and severe frailty; (iii) population pharmacokinetic modelling to allow sparser sampling and consideration of multiple influences on pharmacokinetics; (iv) physiologically based modelling as the physiology of frailty emerges and (v) longitudinal pharmacokinetic studies of chronic drug therapy from middle to old age and from robust to pre-frail to frail, including pre-clinical studies. These data, accompanied by pharmacodynamics data in frailty, will inform safe, effective prescribing for frail older people.

Meropenem-Tobramycin Combination Regimens Combat Carbapenem-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the Hollow-Fiber Infection Model Simulating Augmented Renal Clearance in Critically Ill Patients.

Augmented renal clearance (ARC) is common in critically ill patients and is associated with subtherapeutic concentrations of renally eliminated antibiotics. We investigated the impact of ARC on bacterial killing and resistance amplification for meropenem and tobramycin regimens in monotherapy and combination. Two carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates were studied in static-concentration time-kill studies. One isolate was examined comprehensively in a 7-day hollow-fiber infection model (HFIM). Pharmacokinetic profiles representing substantial ARC (creatinine clearance of 250 ml/min) were generated in the HFIM for meropenem (1 g or 2 g administered every 8 h as 30-min infusion and 3 g/day or 6 g/day as continuous infusion [CI]) and tobramycin (7 mg/kg of body weight every 24 h as 30-min infusion) regimens. The time courses of total and less-susceptible bacterial populations and MICs were determined for the monotherapies and all four combination regimens. Mechanism-based mathematical modeling (MBM) was performed. In the HFIM, maximum bacterial killing with any meropenem monotherapy was ∼3 log10 CFU/ml at 7 h, followed by rapid regrowth with increases in resistant populations by 24 h (meropenem MIC of up to 128 mg/liter). Tobramycin monotherapy produced extensive initial killing (∼7 log10 at 4 h) with rapid regrowth by 24 h, including substantial increases in resistant populations (tobramycin MIC of 32 mg/liter). Combination regimens containing meropenem administered intermittently or as a 3-g/day CI suppressed regrowth for ∼1 to 3 days, with rapid regrowth of resistant bacteria. Only a 6-g/day CI of meropenem combined with tobramycin suppressed regrowth and resistance over 7 days. MBM described bacterial killing and regrowth for all regimens well. The mode of meropenem administration was critical for the combination to be maximally effective against carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa.

Optimizing vancomycin dosage regimens in relation to high-flux haemodialysis.

Objectives: To develop a population pharmacokinetic (PK) model for vancomycin in adults receiving high-flux haemodialysis (HFHD) in an effort to optimize vancomycin dosing in this population. Methods: A population PK model using NONMEM was developed using retrospective data collected from 48 vancomycin courses administered to patients (n = 37) receiving HFHD. Fixed-dose [1.5 g loading dose (LD), 1 g maintenance dose (MD)], literature-adapted weight-based (WBL; 20 mg/kg LD, 10 mg/kg MD) and hospital-adapted weight-based (WBH; 25-30 mg/kg LD, 20-25 mg/kg MD) dosage regimens were then simulated using the Monte Carlo method. The PTA was an AUC24/MIC ≥400 with success being a PTA ≥90%. Results: The data were best described using a two-compartment model. It was observed that fixed-dose and WBL dosage regimens resulted in a PTA ≤90% for most days. The WBH dosing achieved a PTA ≥90% on most days, but there were supratherapeutic concentrations with repeated dosing of vancomycin. If HFHD was delayed by 48-72 h after the LD, the PTA would fall below 90%. A dose-optimized regimen was developed: 30 mg/kg LD and 10 mg/kg MD given on HFHD days. An additional dose of 500 mg or 1 g was administered 24 h after the LD if HFHD occurred 48-72 h post-LD. This dose-optimized regimen afforded a PTA ≥90% on all days of therapy and achieved clinically acceptable pre-haemodialysis concentrations. Conclusions: Current vancomycin dosage regimens used clinically do not achieve a PTA ≥90% for most days of therapy for people receiving HFHD. A dose-optimized regimen was developed, which could be implemented in clinical practice.

Respiratory syncytial virus-A dynamics and the effects of lumicitabine, a nucleoside viral replication inhibitor, in experimentally infected humans.

Background: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes high morbidity, with mortality rates approaching or exceeding that of influenza in adult and infant patient populations, respectively. Lumicitabine (ALS-008176 or JNJ-64041575) is an oral nucleoside analogue prodrug in clinical development to treat RSV infections. This prodrug converts to plasma-circulating ALS-8112, and then to the 5'-active nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) form within host cells. We conducted an RSV-A challenge study in healthy adults to evaluate lumicitabine's activity during an active RSV infection. Objectives: To develop a semi-mechanistic mathematical model describing RSV kinetics, and the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of lumicitabine during treatment. Methods: Nasopharyngeal viral load and concentrations of ALS-8112 and ALS-8144 (uridine metabolite) were measured frequently over the study duration. Population viral kinetic and PK/PD models were developed using NONMEM. The RSV life-cycle was described using a target-cell-limited model that included a physiological delay. Results: The estimated clearances of ALS-8112 and ALS-8144 were 54.2 and 115 L/h/70 kg, respectively. A semi-physiological model was linked to predict ALS-8112 conversion to active intracellular NTP. Extensive and rapid RSV reduction occurred after lumicitabine treatment (EC50 = 1.79 µM), with >99% viral inhibition at 2 h after loading dose. Simulated NTP exposures and time to EC50 attainment suggested that rapid therapeutic effects and reduced dosing frequency are achievable in adult and paediatric patients. Conclusions: The semi-mechanistic model characterizes RSV kinetics and the antiviral effectiveness of lumicitabine in an adult challenge population. This model is applicable to guide dose selection in adult and paediatric patients.

An analysis of allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies, actionable pharmacogenomic (PGx) variants and phenoconversion in 5408 Australian patients genotyped for CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genes.

Common polymorphisms in the genes encoding CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2C9 and VKORC1 enzymes have an important role in predicting the occurrence of adverse effects and the efficacy of substrate medications. Drug-induced changes to the enzyme's phenotype, a process called phenoconversion, comprise another important factor contributing to interindividual variability in drug response. To date, there is lack of data on the frequency of these common polymorphisms and phenoconversion in the pan-ethnic Australian population. The aim of this study was to (1) describe allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies for CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2C9 and VKORC1 enzymes in the pan-ethnic Australian population and (2) evaluate the frequency of actionable pharmacogenomic (PGx) variants and phenoconversion. Frequencies were calculated using the records of 5408 Australian patients (obtained from myDNA's propriety database), who were consecutively tested with the DNAdose PGx test which included the CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genes. In 2509 patients with listed medications at the time of testing, phenoconversion frequencies were calculated for CYP2D6, CYP2C19 and CYP2C9 enzymes. Allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies in our Australian patients correlated with a Caucasian population. Approximately 96% of patients had at least one actionable PGx variant. A five-fold increase in the frequency of poor metabolisers (PMs) for CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 was predicted by phenoconversion. Our study results indicate a high frequency of actionable PGx variants in our Australian population. With the addition of drug-induced phenoconversion, our results provide further support for the utilisation of PGx testing in clinical practice as another tool assisting prescribers in the application of personalised medicine.

Understanding how medications contribute to clinical deterioration and are used in rapid response systems: A comprehensive scoping review.

BACKGROUND: In hospitals, rapid response systems (RRSs) identify patients who deteriorate and provide critical care at their bedsides to stabilise and escalate care. Medications, including oral and parenteral pharmaceutical preparations, are the most common intervention for hospitalised patients and the most common cause of harm. This connection between clinical deterioration and medication safety is poorly understood. OBJECTIVES: To inform improvements in prevention and management of clinical deterioration, this review aimed to examine how medications contributed to clinical deterioration and how medications were used in RRSs. REVIEW METHODS: A scoping review was undertaken of medication data reported in studies of clinical deterioration or RRSs in diverse hospital settings between 2005 and 2017. Bibliographic database searches used permutations of "rapid response system," "medical emergency team," and keyword searching with medication-related terms. Independent selection, quality assessment, and data extraction informed mapping against four medication themes: causes of deterioration, predictors of deterioration, RRS use, and management. RESULTS: Thirty articles were reviewed. Quality was low: limited by small samples, observational, single-centre designs and few primary medication-related outcomes. Adverse drug reactions and potentially preventable medication errors, involving sedatives, analgesics, and cardiovascular agents, contributed to clinical deterioration. While sparsely reported, outcomes included death and escalation of care. In children, administration of antibiotics or nebulised medications appeared to predict subsequent deterioration. Cardiovascular medications, sedatives, and analgesics commonly were used to manage deterioration but further detail was lacking. Despite reported potential for patient harm, evaluation of medication management systems was limited. CONCLUSIONS: Medications contributed to potentially preventable clinical deterioration, with considerable harm, and were common interventions for its management. When assessing deteriorating patients or caring for patients who require escalation to critical care, clinicians should consider medication errors and adverse reactions. Studies with more specific medication-related, patient-centred end points could reduce medication-related deterioration and refine RRS medication use and management.

Optimization and Evaluation of Piperacillin-Tobramycin Combination Dosage Regimens against Pseudomonas aeruginosa for Patients with Altered Pharmacokinetics via the Hollow-Fiber Infection Model and Mechanism-Based Modeling.

Augmented renal clearance (ARC) in critically ill patients can result in suboptimal drug exposures and treatment failure. Combination dosage regimens accounting for ARC have never been optimized and evaluated against Pseudomonas aeruginosa by use of the hollow-fiber infection model (HFIM). Using a P. aeruginosa isolate from a critically ill patient and static-concentration time-kill experiments (SCTKs), we studied clinically relevant piperacillin and tobramycin concentrations, alone and in combinations, against two inocula (105.8 and 107.6 CFU/ml) over 72 h. We subsequently evaluated the effects of optimized piperacillin (4 g every 4 h [q4h], given as 0.5-h infusions) plus tobramycin (5 mg/kg of body weight q24h, 7 mg/kg q24h, or 10 mg/kg q48h, given as 0.5-h infusions) regimens on killing and regrowth in the HFIM, simulating a creatinine clearance of 250 ml/min. Mechanism-based modeling was performed in S-ADAPT. In SCTKs, piperacillin plus tobramycin (except combinations with 8 mg/liter tobramycin and against the low inoculum) achieved synergistic killing (≥2 log10 versus the most active monotherapy at 48 h and 72 h) and prevented regrowth. Piperacillin monotherapy (4 g q4h) in the HFIM provided 2.4-log10 initial killing followed by regrowth at 24 h and resistance emergence. Tobramycin monotherapies displayed rapid initial killing (≥5 log10 at 13 h) followed by extensive regrowth. As predicted by mechanism-based modeling, the piperacillin plus tobramycin dosage regimens were synergistic and provided ≥5-log10 killing with resistance suppression over 8 days in the HFIM. Optimized piperacillin-tobramycin regimens provided significant bacterial killing and suppressed resistance emergence. These regimens appear to be highly promising for effective and early treatment, even in the near-worst-case scenario of ARC.

Substantial Impact of Altered Pharmacokinetics in Critically Ill Patients on the Antibacterial Effects of Meropenem Evaluated via the Dynamic Hollow-Fiber Infection Model.

Critically ill patients frequently have substantially altered pharmacokinetics compared to non-critically ill patients. We investigated the impact of pharmacokinetic alterations on bacterial killing and resistance for commonly used meropenem dosing regimens. A Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolate (MICmeropenem 0.25 mg/liter) was studied in the hollow-fiber infection model (inoculum ∼107.5 CFU/ml; 10 days). Pharmacokinetic profiles representing critically ill patients with augmented renal clearance (ARC), normal, or impaired renal function (creatinine clearances of 285, 120, or ∼10 ml/min, respectively) were generated for three meropenem regimens (2, 1, and 0.5 g administered as 8-hourly 30-min infusions), plus 1 g given 12 hourly with impaired renal function. The time course of total and less-susceptible populations and MICs were determined. Mechanism-based modeling (MBM) was performed using S-ADAPT. All dosing regimens across all renal functions produced similar initial bacterial killing (≤∼2.5 log10). For all regimens subjected to ARC, regrowth occurred after 7 h. For normal and impaired renal function, bacterial killing continued until 23 to 47 h; regrowth then occurred with 0.5- and 1-g regimens with normal renal function (fT>5×MIC = 56 and 69%, fCmin/MIC < 2); the emergence of less-susceptible populations (≥32-fold increases in MIC) accompanied all regrowth. Bacterial counts remained suppressed across 10 days with normal (2-g 8-hourly regimen) and impaired (all regimens) renal function (fT>5×MIC ≥ 82%, fCmin/MIC ≥ 2). The MBM successfully described bacterial killing and regrowth for all renal functions and regimens simultaneously. Optimized dosing regimens, including extended infusions and/or combinations, supported by MBM and Monte Carlo simulations, should be evaluated in the context of ARC to maximize bacterial killing and suppress resistance emergence.

Interdisciplinary pharmacometrics linking oseltamivir pharmacology, influenza epidemiology and health economics to inform antiviral use in pandemics.

AIMS: A modular interdisciplinary platform was developed to investigate the economic impact of oseltamivir treatment by dosage regimen under simulated influenza pandemic scenarios. METHODS: The pharmacology module consisted of a pharmacokinetic distribution of oseltamivir carboxylate daily area under the concentration-time curve at steady state (simulated for 75 mg and 150 mg twice daily regimens for 5 days) and a pharmacodynamic distribution of viral shedding duration obtained from phase II influenza inoculation data. The epidemiological module comprised a susceptible, exposed, infected, recovered (SEIR) model to which drug effect on the basic reproductive number (R0 ), a measure of transmissibility, was linked by reduction of viral shedding duration. The number of infected patients per population of 100 000 susceptible individuals was simulated for a series of pandemic scenarios, varying oseltamivir dose, R0 (1.9 vs. 2.7), and drug uptake (25%, 50%, and 80%). The number of infected patients for each scenario was entered into the health economics module, a decision analytic model populated with branch probabilities, disease utility, costs of hospitalized patients developing complications, and case-fatality rates. Change in quality-adjusted life years was determined relative to base case. RESULTS: Oseltamivir 75 mg relative to no treatment reduced the median number of infected patients, increased change in quality-adjusted life years by deaths averted, and was cost-saving under all scenarios; 150 mg relative to 75 mg was not cost effective in low transmissibility scenarios but was cost saving in high transmissibility scenarios. CONCLUSION: This methodological study demonstrates proof of concept that the disciplines of pharmacology, disease epidemiology and health economics can be linked in a single quantitative framework.

Patterns of use and appropriateness of antibiotics prescribed to patients receiving haemodialysis: an observational study.

BACKGROUND: There are limited published data on the types and appropriateness of oral and intravenous (IV) antibiotics prescribed to patients receiving haemodialysis. This information is critical to optimise antibiotic prescribing. Therefore this study aims to describe the patterns of use and the appropriateness of oral and IV antibiotics prescribed to patients receiving haemodialysis. METHODS: This was a prospective, observational study across four community and two hospital inpatient haemodialysis units in Melbourne, Australia. Data were collected from July 2014 to January 2015 from participants. Antibiotic regimens prescribed were compared with nationally available antibiotic guidelines and then classified as being either appropriate, inappropriate or not assessable by an expert multidisciplinary team using the National Antimicrobial Prescribing Survey tool. RESULTS: Overall, 114 participants consented to this study where 55.3% (63/114) received antibiotics and 235 antibiotic regimens were prescribed at a rate of 69.1 antibiotic regimens/100 patient-months. The most common oral antibiotics prescribed were amoxycillin/clavulanic acid and cephalexin. The most common IV antibiotics prescribed were vancomycin, piperacillin/tazobactam, cephazolin and ceftriaxone. The percentage of inappropriate antibiotic regimens prescribed were 34.9% (15/43) in the community setting and 22.1% (40/181) in the hospital setting. Furthermore, 29.4% (30/102) of oral and 20.5% (25/122) of IV antibiotic regimens were inappropriate with incorrect dosing as the primary reason. CONCLUSION: Although this study is limited by the sample size, it describes the high antibiotic exposure that patients receiving haemodialysis experience. Of concern is inappropriate dose and frequency being a major issue. This requires interventions focused on the quality use of medicines and antimicrobial stewardship aspects of prescribing in this population.

Identification of major factors in Australian primary care pharmacists' practice environment that have a bearing on the implementation of professional models of practice.

Objective The aim of the present study was to describe an environmental framework for pharmacists in primary care in Australia and determine the major factors within that environment that have the greatest bearing on their capacity to implement patient-focused models of professional practice. Methods A draft framework for pharmacists' practice was developed by allocating structures, systems and related factors known to the researchers or identified from the literature as existing within pharmacists' internal, operational and external environments to one of five domains: Social, Technological, Economic, Environmental or Political [STEEP]. Focus groups of pharmacists used an adapted nominal group technique to assess the draft and add factors where necessary. Where applicable, factors were consolidated into groups to establish a revised framework. The three major factors or groups in each domain were identified. The results were compared with the enabling factors described in the profession's vision statement. Results Seventy-eight individual factors were ultimately identified, with 86% able to be grouped. The three dominant groups in each of the five domains that had a bearing on the implementation of professional models of practice were as follows: (1) Social: the education of pharmacists, their beliefs and the capacity of the pharmacist workforce; (2) Technological: current and future practice models, technology and workplace structures; (3) Economic: funding of services, the viability of practice and operation of the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme; (4) Environmental: attitudes and expectations of stakeholders, including consumers, health system reform and external competition; and (5) Political: regulation of practice, representation of the profession and policies affecting practice. Conclusions The three dominant groups of factors in each of the five STEEP environmental domains, which have a bearing on pharmacists' capacity to implement patient-focused models of practice, correlate well with the enabling factors identified in the profession's vision statement, with the addition of three factors in the Environmental domain of stakeholder attitudes, health system reform and external competition. What is known about the topic? The extensive range of patient-focused professional programs developed for application by pharmacists in primary care in Australia has yet to be widely implemented. What does this paper add? Factors both within and beyond the pharmacists' immediate practice environment that have a bearing on the uptake of professional programs have been identified and prioritised using a structured thematic approach. What are the implications for practitioners? The results demonstrate the need for a multifactorial approach to the implementation of professional models of practice in this setting.