Preoperative Assessment and Optimization of Cardiopulmonary Disease in Noncardiac Surgery.

More than 50 million surgical procedures are carried out every year in the United States with the estimated risk of major adverse cardiac events perioperatively between 1.4 and 3.9%. Given that the majority of surgeries are elective, this allows ample opportunity to identify patients at higher risk of perioperative adverse events and optimize them for surgery. Preexisting cardiopulmonary disease is a major risk factor for adverse events perioperatively and can lead to significant morbidity and mortality. It can predispose patients to perioperative myocardial ischemia and infarction, perioperative pulmonary complications, and perioperative stroke among other complications. This article details an approach to preoperative interview and examination, indications for preoperative testing, and strategies for optimization in patients with underlying cardiopulmonary disease. It also includes guidelines on optimal timing of elective surgery in certain clinical scenarios that can escalate perioperative risk. Through the use of thorough preoperative assessment, targeted preoperative testing, and multidisciplinary optimization of preexisting disease, perioperative risk can be decreased significantly and perioperative outcomes improved.

Anesthesiologist Age and Sex Influence Patient Perceptions of Physician Competence.

BACKGROUND: Uncovering patients' biases toward characteristics of anesthesiologists may inform ways to improve the patient-anesthesiologist relationship. The authors previously demonstrated that patients prefer anesthesiologists displaying confident body language, but did not detect a sex bias. The effect of anesthesiologists' age on patient perceptions has not been studied. In this follow-up study, it was hypothesized that patients would prefer older-appearing anesthesiologists over younger-appearing anesthesiologists and male over female anesthesiologists. METHODS: Three hundred adult, English-speaking patients were recruited in the Preanesthesia Evaluation and Testing Center. Patients were randomized (150 per group) to view a set of four videos in random order. Each 90-s video featured an older female, older male, younger female, or younger male anesthesiologist reciting the same script describing general anesthesia. Patients ranked each anesthesiologist on confidence, intelligence, and likelihood of choosing the anesthesiologist to care for their family member. Patients also chose the one anesthesiologist who seemed most like a leader. RESULTS: Three hundred patients watched the videos and completed the questionnaire. Among patients younger than age 65 yr, the older anesthesiologists had greater odds of being ranked more confident (odds ratio, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.41 to 2.64; P < 0.001) and more intelligent (odds ratio, 2.24; 95% CI, 1.62 to 3.11; P < 0.001), and had greater odds of being considered a leader (odds ratio, 2.62; 95% CI, 1.72 to 4.00; P < 0.001) when compared with younger anesthesiologists. The preference for older anesthesiologists was not observed in patients age 65 and older. Female anesthesiologists had greater odds of being ranked more confident (odds ratio, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.13 to 1.87; P = 0.003) and more likely to be chosen to care for one's family member (odds ratio, 1.80; 95% CI, 1.40 to 2.31; P < 0.001) compared with male anesthesiologists. The ranking preference for female anesthesiologists on these two measures was observed among white patients and not among nonwhite patients. CONCLUSIONS: Patients preferred older anesthesiologists on the measures of confidence, intelligence, and leadership. Patients also preferred female anesthesiologists on the measures of confidence and likelihood of choosing the anesthesiologist to care for one's family member.

Impact of Caffeine Ingestion on the Driving Performance of Anesthesiology Residents After 6 Consecutive Overnight Work Shifts.

BACKGROUND: Residency training in anesthesiology involves care of hospitalized patients and necessitates overnight work, resulting in altered sleep patterns and sleep deprivation. Caffeine consumption is commonly used to improve alertness when fatigued after overnight work, in preparation for the commute home. METHODS: We studied the impact of drinking a caffeinated energy drink (160 mg of caffeine) on driving performance in a high-fidelity, virtual reality driving simulator (Virginia Driving Safety Laboratory using the Driver Guidance System) in anesthesiology resident physicians immediately after 6 consecutive night-float shifts. Twenty-six residents participated and were randomized to either consume a caffeinated or noncaffeinated energy drink 60 minutes before the driving simulation session. After a subsequent week of night-float work, residents performed the same driving session (in a crossover fashion) with the opposite intervention. Psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) testing was used to evaluate reaction time and lapses in attention. RESULTS: After 6 consecutive night-float shifts, anesthesiology residents who consumed a caffeinated energy drink had increased variability in driving for throttle, steering, and speed during the first 10 minutes of open-road driving but proceeded to demonstrate improved driving performance with fewer obstacle collisions (epoch 2: 0.65 vs 0.87; epoch 3: 0.47 vs 0.95; P = .03) in the final 30 minutes of driving as compared to driving performance after consumption of a noncaffeinated energy drink. Improved driving performance was most apparent during the last 30 minutes of the simulated drive in the caffeinated condition. Mean reaction time between the caffeine and noncaffeine states differed significantly (278.9 ± 29.1 vs 294.0 ± 36.3 milliseconds; P = .021), while the number of major lapses (0.09 ± 0.43 vs 0.27 ± 0.55; P = .257) and minor lapses (1.05 ± 1.39 vs 2.05 ± 3.06; P = .197) was not significantly different. CONCLUSIONS: After consuming a caffeinated energy drink on conclusion of 6 shifts of night-float work, anesthesiology residents had improved control of driving performance variables in a high-fidelity driving simulator, including a significant reduction in collisions as well as slightly faster reaction times.

Anesthesiology Resident Night Float Duty Alters Sleep Patterns: An Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: Residency programs utilize night float systems to adhere to duty hour restrictions; however, the influence of night float on resident sleep has not been described. The study aim was to determine the influence of night float on resident sleep patterns and quality of sleep. We hypothesized that total sleep time decreases during night float, increases as residents acclimate to night shift work, and returns to baseline during recovery. METHODS: This was a single-center observational study of 30 anesthesia residents scheduled to complete six consecutive night float shifts. Electroencephalography sleep patterns were recorded during baseline (three nights), night float (six nights), and recovery (three nights) using the ZMachine Insight monitor (General Sleep Corporation, USA). Total sleep time; light, deep, and rapid eye movement sleep; sleep efficiency; latency to persistent sleep; and wake after sleep onset were observed. RESULTS: Mean total sleep time ± SD was 5.9 ± 1.9 h (3.0 ± 1.2.1 h light; 1.4 ± 0.6 h deep; 1.6 ± 0.7 h rapid eye movement) at baseline. During night float, mean total sleep time was 4.5 ± 1.8 h (1.4-h decrease, 95% CI: 0.9 to 1.9, Cohen's d = -1.1, P < 0.001) with decreases in light (2.2 ± 1.1 h, 0.7-h decrease, 95% CI: 0.4 to 1.1, d = -1.0, P < 0.001), deep (1.1 ± 0.7 h, 0.3-h decrease, 95% CI: 0.1 to 0.4, d = -0.5, P = 0.005), and rapid eye movement sleep (1.2 ± 0.6 h, 0.4-h decrease, 95% CI: 0.3 to 0.6, d = -0.9, P < 0.001). Mean total sleep time during recovery was 5.4 ± 2.2 h, which did not differ significantly from baseline; however, deep (1.0 ± 0.6 h, 0.4-h decrease, 95% CI: 0.2 to 0.6, d = -0.6, P = 0.001 *, P = 0.001) and rapid eye movement sleep (1.2 ± 0.8 h, 0.4-h decrease, 95% CI: 0.2 to 0.6, d = -0.9, P < 0.001 P < 0.001) were significantly decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Electroencephalography monitoring demonstrates that sleep quantity is decreased during six consecutive night float shifts. A 3-day period of recovery is insufficient for restorative sleep (rapid eye movement and deep sleep) levels to return to baseline.

Influence of Sex and Body Language on Patient Perceptions of Anesthesiologists.

BACKGROUND: Patient perception of physician competence is important. The role of body language and physician sex on patient perceptions has not been investigated. The authors hypothesized that patients perceive anesthesiologists displaying confident body language as more competent and that patients would prefer male anesthesiologists. METHODS: Two hundred adult patients presenting to the Preanesthesia Evaluation and Testing Center at the University of Virginia Health System were recruited to participate using consecutive sampling. Patients viewed four 90-s videos in random order. Each video featured a male or female actor displaying confident, high-power poses or unconfident, low-power poses. Each actor recited the same script describing general anesthesia. Patients were randomized (100 per group) to view one of two sets of videos to account for any actor preferences. Participants ranked each actor anesthesiologist on perceived confidence, intelligence, and likelihood of choosing that anesthesiologist to care for their family member. Participants also chose the one actor anesthesiologist who seemed most like a leader. RESULTS: Two hundred patients watched the videos and completed the questionnaire. Actor anesthesiologists displaying confident, high-power body language had greater odds of being ranked as more confident (odds ratio, 2.27; 95% CI, 1.76 to 2.92; P < 0.0001), more intelligent (odds ratio, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.13 to 2.18; P < 0.0001), more likely chosen to care for one's family member (odds ratio, 2.34; 95% CI, 1.82 to 3.02; P < 0.0001), and more likely to be considered a leader (odds ratio, 2.60; 95% CI, 1.86 to 3.65; P < 0.0001). Actor anesthesiologist sex was not associated with ranking for any response measures. CONCLUSIONS: Patients perceive anesthesiologists displaying confident body language as more confident, more intelligent, more like a leader, and are more likely to choose that anesthesiologist to care for their family member. Differences in patient perceptions based on sex of the anesthesiologist were not detected.

Generative retrieval results in positive academic emotions and long-term retention of cardiovascular anatomy using transthoracic echocardiography.

With increasing medical knowledge, procedural, and diagnostic skills to learn, it is vital for educators to make the limited amount of teaching time available to students effective and efficient. Generative retrieval is an effective and efficient learning tool, improving long-term retention through the practice of retrieval from memory. Forty medical students were randomized to learn normal cardiovascular anatomy using transthoracic echocardiography video clips in a generative retrieval (GR) or standard practice (SP) group. GR participants were required to verbally identify each unlabeled cardiovascular structure after viewing the video. After answering, participants viewed the correctly labeled video. SP participants viewed the same video clips labeled with the correct cardiovascular structure for the same amount of total time without verbally generating an answer. All participants were tested for intermediate (1-wk), late (1-mo), and long-term (6- to 9-mo) retention of cardiovascular anatomy. Additionally, a three-question survey was incorporated to assess perceptions of the learning method. There was no difference in pretest scores. The GR group demonstrated a trend toward improvement in recall at 1 wk [GR = 74.3 (SD 12.3); SP = 65.4 (SD 16.7); P = 0.10] and 1 mo [GR = 69.9 (SD15.6); SP = 64.3 (SD 15.4); P = 0.33]. At the 6- to 9-mo time point, there was a statistically significant difference in scores [GR = 74.3 (SD 9.9); SP = 65.0 (SD 14.1); P = 0.042]. At nearly every time point, learners had a statistically significantly higher perception of effectiveness, enjoyment, and satisfaction with GR. In addition to improved recall, GR is associated with increased perceptions of effectiveness, enjoyment, and satisfaction, which may lead to increased engagement, time spent studying, and improved retention.

Concomitant lipomatous hypertrophy and left atrial mass: Distinguishing benign from malignant.

Masses in and near the interatrial septum may be either benign or malignant. The most common mass near the interatrial septum is lipomatous atrial septal hypertrophy (LASH). LASH can be present in patients with intracardiac malignancies, myxomas, lipomas, or other cardiac masses. It is important to recognize the transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) characteristics of these pathologies to arrive at an accurate diagnosis with an appropriate plan for intraoperative resection. At the authors' institution, patients have been referred for surgery due to a finding of significant LASH masquerading as a left atrial myxoma. In challenging cases, TEE offers a thorough evaluation of the interatrial septum to delineate between multiple intracardiac masses.

Generative Retrieval Improves Learning and Retention of Cardiac Anatomy Using Transesophageal Echocardiography.

BACKGROUND: Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is a valuable monitor for patients undergoing cardiac and noncardiac surgery as it allows for evaluation of cardiovascular compromise in the perioperative period. It is challenging for anesthesiology residents and medical students to learn to use and interpret TEE in the clinical environment. A critical component of learning to use and interpret TEE is a strong grasp of normal cardiovascular ultrasound anatomy. METHODS: Fifteen fourth-year medical students and 15 post-graduate year (PGY) 1 and 2 anesthesiology residents without prior training in cardiac anesthesia or TEE viewed normal cardiovascular anatomy TEE video clips; participants were randomized to learning cardiac anatomy in generative retrieval (GR) and standard practice (SP) groups. GR participants were required to verbally identify each unlabeled cardiac anatomical structure within 10 seconds of the TEE video appearing on the screen. Then a correctly labeled TEE video clip was shown to the GR participant for 5 more seconds. SP participants viewed the same TEE video clips as GR but there was no requirement for SP participants to generate an answer; for the SP group, each TEE video image was labeled with the correctly identified anatomical structure for the 15 second period. All participants were tested for intermediate (1 week) and late (1 month) retention of normal TEE cardiovascular anatomy. Improvement of intermediate and late retention of TEE cardiovascular anatomy was evaluated using a linear mixed effects model with random intercepts and random slopes. RESULTS: There was no statistically significant difference in baseline score between GR (49% ± 11) and SP (50% ± 12), with mean difference (95% CI) -1.1% (-9.5, 7.3%). At 1 week following the educational intervention, GR (90% ± 5) performed significantly better than SP (82% ± 11), with mean difference (95% CI) 8.1% (1.9, 14.2%); P = .012. This significant increase in scores persisted in the late posttest session at one month (GR: 83% ± 12; SP: 72% ± 12), with mean difference (95% CI) 10.2% (1.3 to 19.1%); P = .026. Mixed effects analysis showed significant improvements in TEE cardiovascular anatomy over time, at 5.9% and 3.5% per week for GR and SP groups respectively (P = .0003), and GR improved marginally faster than SP (P = .065). CONCLUSIONS: Medical students and anesthesiology residents inexperienced in the use of TEE showed both improved learning and retention of basic cardiovascular ultrasound anatomy with the incorporation of GR into the educational experience.

Driving Performance of Residents after Six Consecutive Overnight Work Shifts.

BACKGROUND: Residency training requires work in clinical settings for extended periods of time, resulting in altered sleep patterns, sleep deprivation, and potentially deleterious effects on safe performance of daily activities, including driving a motor vehicle. METHODS: Twenty-nine anesthesiology resident physicians in postgraduate year 2 to 4 drove for 55 min in the Virginia Driving Safety Laboratory using the Driver Guidance System (MBFARR, LLC, USA). Two driving simulator sessions were conducted, one experimental session immediately after the final shift of six consecutive night shifts and one control session at the beginning of a normal day shift (not after call). Both sessions were conducted at 8:00 AM. Psychomotor vigilance task testing was employed to evaluate reaction time and lapses in attention. RESULTS: After six consecutive night shifts, residents experienced significantly impaired control of all the driving variables including speed, lane position, throttle, and steering. They were also more likely to be involved in collisions. After six consecutive night shifts, residents had a significant increase in reaction times (281.1 vs. 298.5 ms; P = 0.001) and had a significant increase in the number of both minor (0.85 vs. 1.88; P = 0.01) and major lapses (0.00 vs. 0.31; P = 0.008) in attention. CONCLUSIONS: Resident physicians have greater difficulty controlling speed and driving performance in the driving simulator after six consecutive night shifts. Reaction times are also increased with emphasis on increases in minor and major lapses in attention after six consecutive night shifts.

The impact of hindsight bias on the diagnosis of perioperative events by anesthesia providers: A multicenter randomized crossover study.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Hindsight bias is the tendency to overestimate the predictability of an event after it has already occurred. We aimed to evaluate whether hindsight bias influences the retrospective interpretation of clinical scenarios in the field of anesthesiology, which relies on clinicians making rapid decisions in the setting of perioperative adverse events. DESIGN: Two clinical scenarios were developed (intraoperative hypotension and intraoperative hypoxia) with 3 potential diagnoses for each. Participants completed a crossover study reviewing one case without being informed of the supposed ultimate diagnosis (i.e., no 'anchor' diagnosis), referred to as their foresight case, and the other as a hindsight case wherein they were informed in the leading sentence of the scenario that 1 of the 3 conditions provided was the ultimate diagnosis (i.e., the diagnosis the participant might 'anchor' to if given this information at the start). Participants were randomly assigned to (1) which scenario (hypotension or hypoxia) was presented as the initial foresight case and (2) which of the 3 potential diagnoses for the second case (the hindsight case, which defaulted to whichever case the participant was not assigned for the first case) was presented as the ultimate diagnosis in the leading sentence in a 2 (scenario order) x 3 (hindsight case anchor) between-subjects factorial design (6 possible randomization assignments). SETTING: Two academic medical centers. PARTICIPANTS: Faculty, fellow, and resident anesthesiologists and certified nurse anesthetists (CRNAs). INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS: After reading each clinical scenario, participants were asked to rate the probability (%) of each of three potential diagnoses to have caused the hypotension or hypoxia. Compositional data analysis (CoDA) was used to compare whether diagnosis probabilities differ between the hindsight and the foresight case. MAIN RESULTS: 113 participants completed the study. 59 participants (52%) were resident anesthesiologists. Participants randomized to the hypotension scenario as a hindsight case were 2.82 times more likely to assign higher probability to the pulmonary embolus diagnosis if provided as an anchor (95% CI, 1.35-5.90; P = 0.006) and twice as likely to assign higher probability to the myocardial infarction diagnosis if provided as an anchor (95% CI, 1.12-3.58; P = 0.020). Participants randomized to the hypoxia scenario as a hindsight case were 1.78 times more likely to assign higher probability to the mainstem bronchus intubation diagnosis if provided in the anchor statement (95% CI, 1.00-3.14; P = 0.048) and 3.72 times more likely to assign higher probability to the pulmonary edema diagnosis if provided as an anchor (95% CI, 1.88-7.35; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Hindsight bias influences the clinical diagnosis probabilities assigned by anesthesia providers. Clinicians should be educated on hindsight bias in perioperative medicine and be cognizant of the effect of hindsight bias when interpreting clinical outcomes.

Bedside Clinician's Guide to Pulmonary Artery Catheters.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary artery catheters provide important information about cardiac function, mixed venous oxygenation, and right-sided pressures and potentially provide temporary pacing ability. OBJECTIVE: To provide bedside clinicians with guidance for techniques to insert right heart monitors and devices, describe risk factors for difficult insertion and contraindications to placement, and provide updates on new technologies that may be encountered in the intensive care unit. METHODS: An extensive literature review was performed. Experienced clinicians were asked to identify topics not addressed in the literature. RESULTS: Advanced imaging techniques such as transesophageal echocardiography or fluoroscopy can supplement traditional pressure waveform-guided insertion when needed, and several other techniques can be used to facilitate passage into the pulmonary artery. Caution is warranted when attempting insertion in patients with right-sided masses or preexisting conduction abnormalities. New technologies include a pacing catheter that anchors to the right ventricle and a remote monitoring device that is implanted in the pulmonary artery. DISCUSSION: Bedside clinicians should be aware of risk factors such as atrial fibrillation with dilated atria, decreased ventricular function, pulmonary hypertension, and right-sided structural abnormalities that can make pulmonary artery catheter insertion challenging. Clinicians should be familiar with advanced techniques and imaging options to facilitate placement. CONCLUSION: The overall risk of serious complications with right heart catheter placement and manipulation is low and often outweighed by its benefits, specifically pressure monitoring and pacing.

The Impact of Physician Race and Sex on Patient Ranking of Physician Competence and Perception of Leadership Ability.

Background Biases affect patient perceptions of their physician and influence the physician-patient relationship. While racial disparities in care and inequities in the healthcare workforce are well-documented, the impact of physician race on patient perceptions remains unclear. We aimed to investigate the association of physician race and sex on patient perceptions during simulated preoperative encounters. Methods Three hundred patients recruited consecutively in the Preanesthesia Evaluation and Testing Center viewed pictures of 4 anesthesiologists (black male, white male, black female, white female) in random order while listening to a set of paired audio recordings describing general anesthesia. Participants ranked each anesthesiologist on confidence, intelligence, and likelihood of choosing the anesthesiologist to care for their family member, and chose the one anesthesiologist most like a leader. Results Compared to white anesthesiologists, black anesthesiologists had greater odds of being ranked more confident (OR, 1.45; 95% CI, 1.10 to 1.89; P=0.008) and being considered a leader (OR, 2.06; 95% CI, 1.50 to 2.84; P<0.0001). Among white participants, black anesthesiologists had greater odds of being ranked more intelligent (OR, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.54 to 2.81; P<0.0001) and were more likely to be chosen to care for a family member (OR, 2.26; 95% CI, 1.66 to 3.08; P<0.0001). Female anesthesiologists had greater odds of being ranked more intelligent (OR, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.08 to 1.71; P=0.009) and were more likely to be chosen to care for a family member (OR, 1.58; 95% CI, 1.27 to 1.97; P<0.001) compared with male anesthesiologists. Conclusions Contrary to our hypothesis, patients ranked black physicians more highly on multiple competence and leadership quality metrics. Our data likely highlight the role social desirability bias may play in studies of racial disparities within medicine.

Resting and Recharging: A Narrative Review of Strategies to Improve Sleep During Residency Training.

Background: Residency involves demanding training with long hours that may cause fatigue and sleep deprivation and adversely impact residents and patients under their care. Objective: To identify, using a narrative review, evidence-based interventions to reduce the physiologic effects of fatigue and sleep deprivation from overnight and night shift work. Methods: A PubMed literature search was conducted through August 30, 2021, using the terms "resident" and "sleep" in the title or abstract and further narrowed using a third search term. Observational studies, randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses of human subjects written and published in English were included. Studies that were not specific to residents or medical interns or did not investigate an intervention were excluded. Additional studies were identified by bibliography review. Due to the heterogeneity of study design and intervention, a narrative review approach was chosen with results categorized into non-pharmacological and pharmacological interventions. Results: Initially, 271 articles were identified, which were narrowed to 28 articles with the use of a third search term related to sleep. Bibliography review yielded 4 additional articles. Data on interventions are limited by the heterogeneity of medical specialty, sample size, length of follow-up, and reliance on self-report. Non-pharmacological interventions including strategic scheduling and sleep hygiene may improve sleep and well-being. The available evidence, including randomized controlled trials, to support pharmacological interventions is limited. Conclusions: Non-pharmacological approaches to mitigating fatigue and sleep deprivation have varying effectiveness to improve sleep for residents; however, data for pharmacological interventions is limited.