Chitin deacetylases are necessary for insect femur muscle attachment and mobility.

Muscle attachment sites (MASs, apodemes) in insects and other arthropods involve specialized epithelial cells, called tendon cells or tenocytes, that adhere to apical extracellular matrices containing chitin. Here, we have uncovered a function for chitin deacetylases (CDAs) in arthropod locomotion and muscle attachment using a double-stranded RNA-mediated gene-silencing approach targeted toward specific CDA isoforms in the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Tc). Depletion of TcCDA1 or the alternatively spliced TcCDA2 isoform, TcCDA2a, resulted in internal tendon cuticle breakage at the femur-tibia joint, muscle detachment from both internal and external tendon cells, and defective locomotion. TcCDA deficiency did not affect early muscle development and myofiber growth toward the cuticular MASs but instead resulted in aborted microtubule development, loss of hemiadherens junctions, and abnormal morphology of tendon cells, all features consistent with a loss of tension within and between cells. Moreover, simultaneous depletion of TcCDA1 or TcCDA2a and the zona pellucida domain protein, TcDumpy, prevented the internal tendon cuticle break, further supporting a role for force-dependent interactions between muscle and tendon cells. We propose that in T. castaneum, the absence of N-acetylglucosamine deacetylation within chitin leads to a loss of microtubule organization and reduced membrane contacts at MASs in the femur, which adversely affect musculoskeletal connectivity, force transmission, and physical mobility.

Target deconvolution of HDAC pharmacopoeia reveals MBLAC2 as common off-target.

Drugs that target histone deacetylase (HDAC) entered the pharmacopoeia in the 2000s. However, some enigmatic phenotypes suggest off-target engagement. Here, we developed a quantitative chemical proteomics assay using immobilized HDAC inhibitors and mass spectrometry that we deployed to establish the target landscape of 53 drugs. The assay covers 9 of the 11 human zinc-dependent HDACs, questions the reported selectivity of some widely-used molecules (notably for HDAC6) and delineates how the composition of HDAC complexes influences drug potency. Unexpectedly, metallo-ß-lactamase domain-containing protein 2 (MBLAC2) featured as a frequent off-target of hydroxamate drugs. This poorly characterized palmitoyl-CoA hydrolase is inhibited by 24 HDAC inhibitors at low nanomolar potency. MBLAC2 enzymatic inhibition and knockdown led to the accumulation of extracellular vesicles. Given the importance of extracellular vesicle biology in neurological diseases and cancer, this HDAC-independent drug effect may qualify MBLAC2 as a target for drug discovery.

Functional importance of groups I and II chitinases in cuticle chitin turnover during molting in a wood-boring beetle, Monochamus alternatus.

Insects must periodically replace their old cuticle/exoskeleton with a new one in a process called molting or ecdysis to allow for continuous growth through sequential developmental stages. Many RNA interference (RNAi) studies have demonstrated that certain chitinases (CHTs) play roles in this vital physiological event because knockdown of these CHT genes resulted in developmental arrest during the ensuing molting period in several insect species. In this research we analyzed the functions of group I (MaCHT5) and group II (MaCHT10) CHT genes in molting of the Japanese pine sawyer, Monochamus alternatus, an important forest pest known as a major vector of the pinewood nematode. Real-time qPCR revealed that these two CHT genes differ in their expression patterns during late stages of development. Depletion of either MaCHT5 or MaCHT10 transcripts by RNAi resulted in lethal larval-pupal and pupal-adult molting defects depending on the double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) injection timing during development. The insects were unable to shed their old cuticle and died. Furthermore, transmission electron microscopic analysis revealed that, unlike dsEGFP-treated controls, dsMaCHT5- and dsMaCHT10-treated pharate adults exhibited a failure of degradation of the endocuticular layer of their old pupal cuticle, retaining nearly intact horizontal chitinous laminae and vertical pore canal fibers. Both enzymes were indispensable for complete turnover of the chitinous old endocuticle, which is critical for insect molting. The possible functions of two spliced variants of MaCHT10, namely, MaCHT10a and MaCHT10b, are also discussed. Our results add to the knowledge base for further functional studies of insect chitin catabolism by revealing the relative importance of both MaCHT5 and MaCHT10 in chitin turnover with subtle differences in their action. These essential genes and their encoded proteins are potential targets to manipulate for controlling populations of M. alternatus and other pest insects.

A chitinase with two catalytic domains is required for organization of the cuticular extracellular matrix of a beetle.

Insect cuticle or exoskeleton is an extracellular matrix formed primarily from two different structural biopolymers, chitin and protein. During each molt cycle, a new cuticle is deposited simultaneously with degradation of the inner part of the chitinous procuticle of the overlying old exoskeleton by molting fluid enzymes including epidermal chitinases. In this study we report a novel role for an epidermal endochitinase containing two catalytic domains, TcCHT7, from the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, in organizing chitin in the newly forming cuticle rather than in degrading chitin present in the prior one. Recombinant TcCHT7 expressed in insect cells is membrane-bound and capable of hydrolyzing an extracellular chitin substrate, whereas in vivo, this enzyme is also released from the plasma membrane and co-localizes with chitin in the entire procuticle. RNAi of TcCHT7 reveals that this enzyme is nonessential for any type of molt or degradation of the chitinous matrix in the old cuticle. In contrast, TcCHT7 is required for maintaining the integrity of the cuticle as a compact structure of alternating electron-dense and electron-lucent laminae. There is a reduction in thickness of elytral and leg cuticles after RNAi for TcCHT7. TcCHT7 is also required for formation of properly oriented long chitin fibers inside pore canals that are vertically oriented columnar structures, which contribute to the mechanical strength of a light-weight, yet rigid, adult cuticle. The conservation of CHT7-like proteins harboring such a unique domain configuration among many insect and other arthropod species indicates a critical role for the group III class of chitinases in the higher ordered organization of chitin fibers for development of the structural integrity of many invertebrate exoskeletons.

Photocatalytic Activity of Fibrous Ti/Ce Oxides Obtained by Hydrothermal Impregnation of Short Flax Fibers.

Fibrous Ti/Ce oxide photocatalysts were prepared for the first time by a biomimetic solution process using short flax fibers (flax straw processing waste) as a biotemplate. Titanium polyhydroxy complex solutions with 3% and 5% cerium were used as precursors. Flax fibers were impregnated in an autoclave under hydrothermal conditions. Ti/Ce oxides were obtained from the biotemplate by annealing at 600 °C. The photocatalytic activity of the Ti/Ce oxides was studied by the adsorption and decomposition of the dye rhodamine B under UV irradiation. The photocatalytic decomposition of the dye was 50% and 75% faster for Ti/Ce oxides with 3% and 5% Ce, respectively, than for the analogous undoped fibrous TiO2. The morphologies, textures, and structures of the photocatalysts were studied by scanning electron microscopy, low temperature N2 adsorption/desorption, UV-Vis spectroscopy, and X-ray and XPS analytical methods. It was shown that the introduction of Ce into the precursor solution increased the surface irregularity of the Ti/Ce oxide crystallites compared to pure TiO2. This effect scaled with the Ce concentration. Ce improved the UV light absorption of the material. The Ti/Ce oxides contained Ce4+/Ce3+ pairs that played an important role in redox processes and intensified the photocatalytic activity.

Building ProteomeTools based on a complete synthetic human proteome.

We describe ProteomeTools, a project building molecular and digital tools from the human proteome to facilitate biomedical research. Here we report the generation and multimodal liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of >330,000 synthetic tryptic peptides representing essentially all canonical human gene products, and we exemplify the utility of these data in several applications. The resource (available at http://www.proteometools.org) will be extended to >1 million peptides, and all data will be shared with the community via ProteomicsDB and ProteomeXchange.

Group I chitin deacetylases are essential for higher order organization of chitin fibers in beetle cuticle.

Roles in the organization of the cuticle (exoskeleton) of two chitin deacetylases (CDAs) belonging to group I, TcCDA1 and TcCDA2, as well as two alternatively spliced forms of the latter, TcCDA2a and TcCDA2b, from the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, were examined in different body parts using transmission EM and RNAi. Even though all TcCDAs are co-expressed in cuticle-forming cells from the hardened forewing (elytron) and ventral abdomen, as well as in the softer hindwing and dorsal abdomen, there are significant differences in the tissue specificity of expression of the alternatively spliced transcripts. Loss of either TcCDA1 or TcCDA2 protein by RNAi causes abnormalities in organization of chitinous horizontal laminae and vertical pore canals in all regions of the procuticle of both the hard and soft cuticles. Simultaneous RNAi for TcCDA1 and TcCDA2 produces the most serious abnormalities. RNAi of either TcCDA2a or TcCDA2b affects cuticle integrity to some extent. Following RNAi, there is accumulation of smaller disorganized fibers in both the horizontal laminae and pore canals, indicating that TcCDAs play a critical role in elongation/organization of smaller nanofibers into longer fibers, which is essential for structural integrity of both hard/thick and soft/thin cuticles. Immunolocalization of TcCDA1 and TcCDA2 proteins and effects of RNAi on their accumulation indicate that these two proteins function in concert exclusively in the assembly zone in a step involving the higher order organization of the procuticle.

Critical Power Density: A Metric To Compare the Excitation Power Density Dependence of Photon Upconversion in Different Inorganic Host Materials.

In photon upconversion (UC) based on triplet-triplet annihilation, the upconversion photoluminescent quantum yield (UC-PLQY) depends on the excitation power density in a way that can be described by a single figure of merit. This figure of merit, the threshold value, allows the excitation power density required for efficient UC-PLQY to be compared between different triplet-triplet annihilation systems. Here, we investigate the excitation power density dependence of two-photon UC processes in a series of four lanthanide-doped inorganic host materials (oxides, fluorides, and chlorides) all doped with 18 mol % Yb3+ sensitizer ions and 2 mol % Er3+ activator ions. We demonstrate that an analogous figure of merit, which we call the critical power density (CPD), accurately describes the UC power dependence of these samples. Better CPD values are obtained when the lifetime of the intermediate states is long. The UC-PLQY at the CPD is linked to the saturation UC-PLQY. Thus, a measurement of the UC-PLQY at this low power density can be used to estimate the theoretical saturation UC-PLQY in the absence of deleterious effects such as laser-induced heating. This is compared to another method to estimate the saturation based on the CPD model, namely, taking half of the level's PLQY under direct excitation. Our careful analysis of the upconversion spectra as a function of excitation power density gives several insights into the differing upconversion pathways in the hosts and proves to be a useful tool for their comparison.

Noncompetitive Homogeneous Detection of Small Molecules Using Synthetic Nanopeptamer-Based Luminescent Oxygen Channeling.

Our group has previously developed immunoassays for noncompetitive detection of small molecules based on the use of phage borne anti-immunocomplex peptides. Recently, we substituted the phage particles by biotinylated synthetic anti-immunocomplex peptides complexed with streptavidin and named these constructs nanopeptamers. In this work, we report the results of combining AlphaLisa, a commercial luminescent oxygen channeling bead system, with nanopeptamers for the development of a noncompetitive homogeneous assay for the detection of small molecules. The signal generation of AlphaLisa assays relies on acceptor-donor bead proximity induced by the presence of the analyte (a macromolecule) simultaneously bound by antibodies immobilized on the surface of these beads. In the developed assay, termed as nanoAlphaLisa, bead proximity is sustained by the presence of a small model molecule (atrazine, MW = 215) using an antiatrazine antibody captured on the acceptor bead and an atrazine nanopeptamer on the donor bead. Atrazine is one of the most used pesticides worldwide, and its monitoring in water has relevant human health implications. NanoAlphaLisa allowed the homogeneous detection of atrazine down to 0.3 ng/mL in undiluted water samples in 1 h, which is 10-fold below the accepted limit in drinking water. NanoAlphaLisa has the intrinsic advantages for automation and high-throughput, simple, and fast homogeneous detection of target analytes that AlphaLisa assay provides.

Pharmacoproteomic characterisation of human colon and rectal cancer.

Most molecular cancer therapies act on protein targets but data on the proteome status of patients and cellular models for proteome-guided pre-clinical drug sensitivity studies are only beginning to emerge. Here, we profiled the proteomes of 65 colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines to a depth of > 10,000 proteins using mass spectrometry. Integration with proteomes of 90 CRC patients and matched transcriptomics data defined integrated CRC subtypes, highlighting cell lines representative of each tumour subtype. Modelling the responses of 52 CRC cell lines to 577 drugs as a function of proteome profiles enabled predicting drug sensitivity for cell lines and patients. Among many novel associations, MERTK was identified as a predictive marker for resistance towards MEK1/2 inhibitors and immunohistochemistry of 1,074 CRC tumours confirmed MERTK as a prognostic survival marker. We provide the proteomic and pharmacological data as a resource to the community to, for example, facilitate the design of innovative prospective clinical trials.

Quasi-2D Heisenberg Antiferromagnets [CuX(pyz)2](BF4) with X = Cl and Br.

Two Cu2+ coordination polymers [CuCl(pyz)2](BF4) 1 and [CuBr(pyz)2](BF4) 2 (pyz = pyrazine) were synthesized in the family of quasi two-dimensional (2D) [Cu(pyz)2]2+ magnetic networks. The layer connectivity by monatomic halide ligands results in significantly shorter interlayer distances. Structures were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Temperature-dependent X-ray diffraction of 1 revealed rigid [Cu(pyz)2]2+ layers that do not expand between 5 K and room temperature, whereas the expansion along the c-axis amounts to 2%. The magnetic susceptibility of 1 and 2 shows a broad maximum at ∼8 K, indicating antiferromagnetic interactions within the [Cu(pyz)2]2+ layers. 2D Heisenberg model fits result in J∥ = 9.4(1) K for 1 and 8.9(1) K for 2. The interlayer coupling is much weaker with | J⊥| = 0.31(6) K for 1 and 0.52(9) K for 2. The electron density, experimentally determined and calculated by density functional theory, confirms the location of the singly occupied orbital (the magnetic orbital) in the tetragonal plane. The analysis of the spin density reveals a mainly σ-type exchange through pyrazine. Kinks in the magnetic susceptibility indicate the onset of long-range three-dimensional magnetic order below 4 K. The magnetic structures were determined by neutron diffraction. Magnetic Bragg peaks occur below TN = 3.9(1) K for 1 and 3.8(1) K for 2. The magnetic unit cell is doubled along the c-axis ( k = 0, 0, 0.5). The ordered magnetic moments are located in the tetragonal plane and amount to 0.76(8) µB/Cu2+ for 1 and 0.6(1) µB/Cu2+ for 2 at 1.5 K. The moments are coupled antiferromagnetically both in the ab plane and along the c-axis. The Cu2+ g-tensor was determined from electron spin resonance spectra as g x = 2.060(1), g z = 2.275(1) for 1 and g x = 2.057(1), g z = 2.272(1) for 2 at room temperature.

On the Border between Low-Nuclearity and One-Dimensional Solids: A Unique Interplay of 1,2,4-Triazolyl-Based {CuII5(OH)2} Clusters and MoVI-Oxide Matrix.

A pentanuclear CuII5-hydroxo cluster possessing an unusual linear-shaped configuration was formed and crystallized under hydrothermal conditions as a result of the unique cooperation of bridging 1,2,4-triazole ligand ( trans-1,4-cyclohexanediyl-4,4'-bi(1,2,4-triazole) ( tr2 cy)), MoVI-oxide, and CuSO4. This structural motif can be rationalized by assuming in situ generation of {Cu2Mo6O22}4- anions, which represent heteroleptic derivatives of γ-type [Mo8O26]4- further interlinked by [Cu3(OH)2]4+ cations through [ N- N] bridges. The framework structure of the resulting compound [Cu5(OH)2( tr2 cy)2Mo6O22]·6H2O (1) is thus built up from neutral heterometallic {Cu5(OH)2Mo6O22} n layers pillared with tetradentate tr2 cy. Quantum-chemical calculations demonstrate that the exclusive site of the parent γ-[Mo8O26]4- cluster into which CuII inserts corresponds with the site that has the lowest defect ("MoO2 vacancy") formation energy, demonstrating how the local metal-polyoxomolybdate chemistry can express itself in the final crystal structure. Magnetic susceptibility measurements of 1 show strong antiferromagnetic coupling within the Cu5 chain with exchange parameters J1 = -500(40) K (-348(28) cm-1), J2 = -350(10) K (-243(7) cm-1) and g = 2.32(2), χ2 = 6.5 × 10-4. Periodic quantum-chemical calculations reproduce the antiferromagnetic character of 1 and connect it with an effective ligand-mediated spin coupling mechanism that comes about from the favorable structural arrangement between the Cu centers and the OH-, O2-, and tr2 cy bridging ligands.

Tribolium castaneum RR-1 cuticular protein TcCPR4 is required for formation of pore canals in rigid cuticle.

Insect cuticle is composed mainly of structural proteins and the polysaccharide chitin. The CPR family is the largest family of cuticle proteins (CPs), which can be further divided into three subgroups based on the presence of one of the three presumptive chitin-binding sequence motifs denoted as Rebers-Riddiford (R&R) consensus sequence motifs RR-1, RR-2 and RR-3. The TcCPR27 protein containing the RR-2 motif is one of the most abundant CPs present both in the horizontal laminae and in vertical pore canals in the procuticle of rigid cuticle found in the elytron of the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum. Depletion of TcCPR27 by RNA interference (RNAi) causes both unorganized laminae and pore canals, resulting in malformation and weakening of the elytron. In this study, we investigated the function(s) of another CP, TcCPR4, which contains the RR-1 motif and is easily extractable from elytra after RNAi to deplete the level of TcCPR27. Transcript levels of the TcCPR4 gene are dramatically increased in 3 d-old pupae when adult cuticle synthesis begins. Immunohistochemical studies revealed that TcCPR4 protein is present in the rigid cuticles of the dorsal elytron, ventral abdomen and leg but not in the flexible cuticles of the hindwing and dorsal abdomen of adult T. castaneum. Immunogold labeling and transmission electron microscopic analyses revealed that TcCPR4 is predominantly localized in pore canals and regions around the apical plasma membrane protrusions into the procuticle of rigid adult cuticles. RNAi for TcCPR4 resulted in an abnormal shape of the pore canals with amorphous pore canal fibers (PCFs) in their lumen. These results support the hypothesis that TcCPR4 is required for achieving proper morphology of the vertical pore canals and PCFs that contribute to the assembly of a cuticle that is both lightweight and rigid.

Dinuclear Complexes Formed by Hydrogen Bonds: Synthesis, Structure and Magnetic and Electrochemical Properties.

The synthesis is reported of a series of homo- and hetero-dinuclear octahedral complexes of the ligand 1, 1,2-bis(1-methyl-benzimidazol-2-yl) ethanol, where the two metal centres are linked by hydrogen bonds between coordinated alcohols and coordinated alkoxides. Homonuclear divalent MII MII , mixed-valent MII MIII and heteronuclear MII M'III species are prepared. The complexes have been characterised by X-ray crystallography and show unusually short O⋅⋅⋅O distances for the hydrogen bonds. Magnetic measurements show the hydrogen-bond bridges can lead to ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic coupling. The electrochemistry of the dinuclear species is significantly different from the mononuclear systems: the latter show irreversible waves in cyclic voltammograms as a result of the need to couple proton and electron transfer. The dinuclear species, in contrast, show reversible waves, which are attributed to rapid intramolecular proton transfer facilitated by the hydrogen-bonded structure.

Tetranuclear {CoII2CoIII2}, Octanuclear {CoII4CoIII4}, and Hexanuclear {CoIII3DyIII3} Pivalate Clusters: Synthesis, Magnetic Characterization, and Theoretical Modeling.

New tetranuclear and octanuclear mixed-valent cobalt(II/III) pivalate clusters, namely, [NaCo4(O2CCMe3)6(HO2CCMe3)2(teaH)2(N3)]·2H2O (in two polymorphic modifications, 1 and 1a) and [Co8(O2CCMe3)10(teaH)4(N3)](Me3CCO2)·MeCN·H2O (2) have been synthesized by ultrasonic treatment of a dinuclear cobalt(II) pivalate precursor with sodium azide and triethanolamine (teaH3) ligand in acetonitrile. The use of Dy(NO3)3·6H2O in a similar reaction led to the precipitation of a tetranuclear [NaCo4(O2CCMe3)4(teaH)2(N3)(NO3)2(H2O)2]·H2O (3) cluster and a heterometallic hexanuclear [Co3Dy3(OH)4(O2CCMe3)6(teaH)3(H2O)3](NO3)2·H2O (4) cluster. Single-crystal X-ray analysis showed that 1 (1a) and 3 consist of a tetranuclear pivalate/teaH3 mixed-ligand cluster [CoII2CoIII2(O2CCMe3)4(teaH)2(N3)]+ decorated with sodium pivalates [Na(O2CCMe3)2(HO2CCMe3)2]- (1 or 1a) or sodium nitrates [Na(NO3)2]- (3) to form a square-pyramidal assembly. In 2, the cationic [Co8(O2CCMe3)10(teaH)4(N3)]+ cluster comprises a mixed-valent {CoII4CoIII4} core encapsulated by an azide, 4 teaH2- alcoholamine ligands, and 10 bridging pivalates. Remarkably, in this core, the µ4-N3- ligand joins all four CoII atoms. The heterometallic hexanuclear compound 4 consists of a cationic [CoIII3DyIII3(OH)4(O2CCMe3)6(teaH)3(H2O)3]2+ cluster, two NO3- anions, and a crystallization water molecule. The arrangement of metal atoms in 4 can be approximated as the assembly of a smaller equilateral triangle defined by three Dy sites with a Dy···Dy distance of 3.9 Å and a larger triangle formed by Co sites [Co···Co, 6.1-6.2 Å]. The interpretation of the magnetic properties of clusters 2-4 was performed in the framework of theoretical models, taking into account the structural peculiarities of clusters and their energy spectra. The behavior of clusters 2 and 3 containing CoII ions with orbitally nondegenerate ground states is determined by the zero-field splitting of these states and Heisenberg exchange interaction between the ions. To get a good understanding of the observed magnetic behavior of cluster 4, we take into consideration the crystal fields acting on the DyIII ions, the ferromagnetic coupling of neighboring DyIII ions, and the intercluster antiferromagnetic exchange. For all examined clusters, the developed models describe well the observed temperature dependence of the magnetic susceptibility and the field dependence of magnetization. The computational results apparently show that in cluster 4 two DyIII ions with similar nearest surroundings demonstrate single-molecule-magnet (SMM) behavior, while the strong rhombicity of the ligand surrounding hinders the SMM behavior of the third DyIII ion.

Exploration of a Variety of Copper Molybdate Coordination Hybrids Based on a Flexible Bis(1,2,4-triazole) Ligand: A Look through the Composition-Space Diagram.

We investigated the coordination ability of the bis(1,2,4-triazolyl) module, tr2pr = 1,3-bis(1,2,4-triazol-4-yl)propane, toward the engineering of solid-state structures of copper polyoxomolybdates utilizing a composition space diagram approach. Different binding modes of the ligand including [N-N]-bridging and N-terminal coordination and the existence of favorable conformation forms (anti/anti, gauche/anti, and gauche/gauche) resulted in varieties of mixed metal CuI/MoVI and CuII/MoVI coordination polymers prepared under hydrothermal conditions. The composition space analysis employed was aimed at both the development of new coordination solids and their crystallization fields through systematic changes of the reagent ratios [copper(II) and molybdenum(VI) oxide precursors and the tr2pr ligand]. Nine coordination compounds were synthesized and structurally characterized. The diverse coordination architectures of the compounds are composed of cationic fragments such as [CuII3(µ2-OH)2(µ2-tr)2]4+, [CuII3(µ2-tr)6]6+, [CuII2(µ2-tr)3]4+, etc., connected to polymeric arrays by anionic species (molybdate MoO42-, isomeric α-, δ-, and ß-octamolybdates {Mo8O26}4- or {Mo8O28H2}6-). The inorganic copper(I,II)/molybdenum(VI) oxide matrix itself forms discrete or low-dimensional subtopological motifs (0D, 1D, or 2D), while the organic spacers interconnect them into higher-dimensional networks. The 3D coordination hybrids show moderate thermal stability up to 230-250 °C, while for the 2D compounds, the stability of the framework is distinctly lower (∼190 °C). The magnetic properties of the most representative samples were investigated. The magnetic interactions were rationalized in terms of analyzing the planes of the magnetic orbitals.

Functional specialization among members of Knickkopf family of proteins in insect cuticle organization.

Our recent study on the functional analysis of the Knickkopf protein from T. castaneum (TcKnk), indicated a novel role for this protein in protection of chitin from degradation by chitinases. Knk is also required for the laminar organization of chitin in the procuticle. During a bioinformatics search using this protein sequence as the query, we discovered the existence of a small family of three Knk-like genes (including the prototypical TcKnk) in the T. castaneum genome as well as in all insects with completed genome assemblies. The two additional Knk-like genes have been named TcKnk2 and TcKnk3. Further complexity arises as a result of alternative splicing and alternative polyadenylation of transcripts of TcKnk3, leading to the production of three transcripts (and by inference, three proteins) from this gene. These transcripts are named TcKnk3-Full Length (TcKnk3-FL), TcKnk3-5' and TcKnk3-3'. All three Knk-family genes appear to have essential and non-redundant functions. RNAi for TcKnk led to developmental arrest at every molt, while down-regulation of either TcKnk2 or one of the three TcKnk3 transcripts (TcKnk3-3') resulted in specific molting arrest only at the pharate adult stage. All three Knk genes appear to influence the total chitin content at the pharate adult stage, but to variable extents. While TcKnk contributes mostly to the stability and laminar organization of chitin in the elytral and body wall procuticles, proteins encoded by TcKnk2 and TcKnk3-3' transcripts appear to be required for the integrity of the body wall denticles and tracheal taenidia, but not the elytral and body wall procuticles. Thus, the three members of the Knk-family of proteins perform different essential functions in cuticle formation at different developmental stages and in different parts of the insect anatomy.

Loss of function of the yellow-e gene causes dehydration-induced mortality of adult Tribolium castaneum.

Yellow protein (dopachrome conversion enzyme, DCE) is involved in the melanin biosynthetic pathway that significantly accelerates pigmentation reactions in insects. Recent studies have suggested that the insect yellow genes represent a rapidly evolving gene family generating functionally diverse paralogs, but the exact physiological functions of several yellow genes are still not understood. To study the function(s) of one of the yellow genes, yellow-e (TcY-e), in the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, we performed real-time PCR to analyze its developmental and tissue-specific expression, and utilized immunohistochemistry to identify the localization of the TcY-e protein in adult cuticle. Injection of double-stranded RNA for TcY-e (dsTcY-e) into late instar larvae had no effect on larval-pupal molting or pupal development. The pupal cuticle, including that lining the setae, gin traps and urogomphi, underwent normal tanning. Adult cuticle tanning including that of the head, mandibles and legs viewed through the translucent pupal cuticle was initiated on schedule (pupal days 4-5), indicating that TcY-e is not required for pupal or pharate adult cuticle pigmentation in T. castaneum. The subsequent pupal-adult molt, however, was adversely affected. Although pupal cuticle apolysis and slippage were evident, some of the adults (~25%) were unable to shed their exuvium and died entrapped in their pupal cuticle. In addition, the resulting adults rapidly became highly desiccated. Interestingly, both the failure of the pupal-adult molt and desiccation-induced mortality were prevented by maintaining the dsTcY-e-treated insects at 100% relative humidity (rh). However, when the high humidity-rescued adults were removed from 100% rh and transferred to 50% rh, they rapidly dehydrated and died, whereas untreated beetles thrived throughout development at 50% rh. We also observed that the body color of the high humidity-rescued dsTcY-e-adults was slightly darker than that of control animals. These results support the hypothesis that TcY-e has a role not only in normal body pigmentation in T. castaneum adults but also has a vital waterproofing function.

Composition Space Analysis in the Development of Copper Molybdate Hybrids Decorated by a Bifunctional Pyrazolyl/1,2,4-Triazole Ligand.

A bitopic ligand, 4-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-4-yl)-1,2,4-triazole (Hpz-tr) (1), containing two different heterocyclic moieties was employed for the design of copper(II)-molybdate solids under hydrothermal conditions. In the multicomponent Cu(II)/Hpz-tr/Mo(VI) system, a diverse set of coordination hybrids, [Cu(Hpz-tr)2SO4]·3H2O (2), [Cu(Hpz-tr)Mo3O10] (3), [Cu4(OH)4(Hpz-tr)4Mo8O26]·6H2O (4), [Cu(Hpz-tr)2Mo4O13] (5), and [Mo2O6(Hpz-tr)]·H2O (6), was prepared and characterized. A systematic investigation of these systems in the form of a ternary crystallization diagram approach was utilized to show the influence of the molar ratios of starting reagents, the metal (Cu(II) and Mo(VI)) sources, the temperature, etc., on the reaction products outcome. Complexes 2-4 dominate throughout a wide crystallization range of the composition triangle, while the other two compounds 5 and 6 crystallize as minor phases in a narrow concentration range. In the crystal structures of 2-6, the organic ligand behaves as a short [N-N]-triazole linker between metal centers Cu···Cu in 2-4, Cu···Mo in 5, and Mo···Mo in 6, while the pyrazolyl function remains uncoordinated. This is the reason for the exceptional formation of low-dimensional coordination motifs: 1D for 2, 4, and 6 and 2D for 3 and 5. In all cases, the pyrazolyl group is involved in H bonding (H-donor/H-acceptor) and is responsible for π-π stacking, thus connecting the chain and layer structures in more complicated H-bonding architectures. These compounds possess moderate thermal stability up to 250-300 °C. The magnetic measurements were performed for 2-4, revealing in all three cases antiferromagnetic exchange interactions between neighboring Cu(II) centers and long-range order with a net moment below Tc of 13 K for compound 4.