A dual function of FGF signaling in Xenopus left-right axis formation.

Organ left-right (LR) asymmetry is a conserved vertebrate feature, which is regulated by left-sided activation of Nodal signaling. Nodal asymmetry is established by a leftward fluid-flow generated at the ciliated LR organizer (LRO). Although the role of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling pathways during mesoderm development is conserved, diverging results from different model organisms suggest a non-conserved function in LR asymmetry. Here, we demonstrate that FGF is required during gastrulation in a dual function at consecutive stages of Xenopus embryonic development. In the early gastrula, FGF is necessary for LRO precursor induction, acting in parallel with FGF-mediated mesoderm induction. During late gastrulation, the FGF/Ca2+-branch is required for specification of the flow-sensing lateral LRO cells, a function related to FGF-mediated mesoderm morphogenesis. This second function in addition requires input from the calcium channel Polycystin-2. Thus, analogous to mesoderm development, FGF activity is required in a dual role for laterality specification; namely, for generating and sensing leftward flow. Moreover, our findings in Xenopus demonstrate that FGF functions in LR development share more conserved features across vertebrate species than previously anticipated.

FGF-mediated establishment of left-right asymmetry requires Rab7 function in the dorsal mesoderm in Xenopus.

Gastrulation denotes a very important developmental process, which includes significant structural tissue rearrangements and patterning events that shape the emerging vertebrate organism. At the end of gastrulation, the three body axes are spatially defined while the left-right axis still lacks any molecular or morphological polarity. In most vertebrates, this is established during neurulation by a symmetry breaking LR organizer. However, this mesoderm-derived structure depends on proper induction and specification of the mesoderm, which in turn requires involvement of several signaling pathways. Endocytosis and the endosomal machinery offer manifold platforms for intracellular pathway regulation, especially late endosomes claim increasing attention. The late endosomal regulator Rab7 has been linked to mesoderm specification during gastrulation. Distinct axial defects due to compromised dorsal mesoderm development in rab7-deficient Xenopus embryos suggested a requirement of Rab7 for FGF-dependent mesoderm patterning and LR asymmetry. Here we specifically addressed such a role of Rab7, demonstrating a functional requirement for LR organizer development and symmetry breakage. Using different FGF/MAPK pathway components we show that Rab7 participates in dorsal mesoderm patterning. We suggest a hierarchical classification of Rab7 upstream of MAPK-dependent mesoderm specification, most probably at the level of the small GTPase Ras. Thus, this study affords an insight on how the Rab7-regulated endosomal machinery could participate in signal transduction to enable correct mesoderm specification and left-right asymmetry.

Rab7 is required for mesoderm patterning and gastrulation in Xenopus.

Early embryogenesis requires tightly controlled temporal and spatial coordination of cellular behavior and signaling. Modulations are achieved at multiple levels, from cellular transcription to tissue-scale behavior. Intracellularly, the endolysosomal system emerges as an important regulator at different levels, but in vivo studies are rare. In the frog Xenopus, little is known about the developmental roles of endosomal regulators, or their potential involvement in signaling, especially for late endosomes. Here, we analyzed a hypothesized role of Rab7 in this context, a small GTPase known for its role as a late endosomal regulator. First, rab7 showed strong maternal expression. Following localized zygotic transcript enrichment in the mesodermal ring and neural plate, it was found in tailbud-stage neural ectoderm, notochord, pronephros, eyes and neural crest tissues. Inhibition resulted in strong axis defects caused by a requirement of rab7 for mesodermal patterning and correct gastrulation movements. To test a potential involvement in growth factor signaling, we analyzed early Wnt-dependent processes in the mesoderm. Our results suggest a selective requirement for ligand-induced Wnt activation, implicating a context-dependent role of Rab7.

Identification of Transient Receptor Potential Channel 4-Associated Protein as a Novel Candidate Gene Causing Congenital Primary Hypothyroidism.

BACKGROUND: Congenital primary hypothyroidism (CH) is the most common endocrine disorder in neonates. METHODS: To identify novel genes, we performed whole exome sequencing (WES) in 6 patients with CH due to thyroid dysgenesis (TD). The potential effects of the most relevant variants were analyzed using in silico prediction tools. The most promising candidate gene, transient receptor potential channel 4-associated protein (TRPC4AP), was sequenced in 179 further patients with TD. Expression of TRPC4AP in human thyroid was investigated using RT-PCR. Trpc4ap- functional analysis was performed in Xenopus laevis using Morpholino (MO) antisense oligomers. RESULTS: WES identified a likely damaging mutation in TRPC4AP leading to a de novo stop codon p.Q552*. Targeted sequencing of TRPC4AP demonstrated gene variants with predicted damaging potential in 5 patients resulting each in an amino acid exchange (p.P706S, p.F729L, p.S777C, and p.N229S). We demonstrated that TRPC4AP is expressed in human thyroid gland tissue. Using Xenopus laevis, we showed that the volume of the tadpole thyroid anlage was reduced by 20% in Trpc4ap MO knockdowns compared to controls and by 41% in "Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats"/Cas9-mediated gene knockout experiments. DISCUSSION: A recognized interaction of TRPC4AP and the NF-kappa-B-essential-modulator encoded by IKBKG gene was identified by IPA analysis. IKBKG plays a role in activation of the NF-κB-signaling pathway and regulates genes involved in proliferation and survival of thyrocytes and expression of key enzymes of thyroid hormone synthesis. CONCLUSION: TRPC4AP was identified as a novel candidate gene in TD, but further studies are needed to validate its role in thyroid function.

An Early Function of Polycystin-2 for Left-Right Organizer Induction in Xenopus.

Nodal signaling controls asymmetric organ placement during vertebrate embryogenesis. Nodal is induced by a leftward fluid flow at the ciliated left-right organizer (LRO). The mechanism of flow sensing, however, has remained elusive. pkd2 encodes the calcium channel Polycystin-2, which is required for kidney development and laterality, and may act in flow perception. Here, we have studied the role of Polycystin-2 in Xenopus and show that pkd2 is indispensable for left-right (LR) asymmetry. Knockdown of pkd2 prevented left-asymmetric nodal cascade induction in the lateral plate mesoderm. Defects were due to failure of LRO specification, morphogenesis, and, consequently, absence of leftward flow. Polycystin-2 synergizes with the unconventional nodal-type signaling molecule Xnr3 to induce the LRO precursor tissue before gastrulation, upstream of symmetry breakage. Our data uncover an unknown function of pkd2 in LR axis formation, which we propose represents an ancient role of Polycystin-2 during LRO induction in lower vertebrates.