Single-Cell Tracking Reveals a Role for Pre-Existing CCR5+ Memory Th1 Cells in the Control of Rhinovirus-A39 After Experimental Challenge in Humans.

Background: Little is known about T cells that respond to human rhinovirus in vivo, due to timing of infection, viral diversity, and complex T-cell specificities. We tracked circulating CD4+ T cells with identical epitope specificities that responded to intranasal challenge with rhinovirus (RV)-A39, and we assessed T-cell signatures in the nose. Methods: Cells were monitored using a mixture of 2 capsid-specific major histocompatibility complex II tetramers over a 7-week period, before and after RV-A39 challenge, in 16 human leukocyte antigen-DR4+ subjects who participated in a trial of Bifidobacterium lactis (Bl-04) supplementation. Results: Pre-existing tetramer+ T cells were linked to delayed viral shedding, enriched for activated CCR5+ Th1 effectors, and included a minor interleukin-21+ T follicular helper cell subset. After RV challenge, expansion and activation of virus-specific CCR5+ Th1 effectors was restricted to subjects who had a rise in neutralizing antibodies, and tetramer-negative CCR5+ effector memory types were comodulated. In the nose, CXCR3-CCR5+ T cells present during acute infection were activated effector memory type, whereas CXCR3+ cells were central memory type, and cognate chemokine ligands were elevated over baseline. Probiotic had no T-cell effects. Conclusions: We conclude that virus-specific CCR5+ effector memory CD4+ T cells primed by previous exposure to related viruses contribute to the control of rhinovirus.

Differential proteome and cellular adhesion analyses of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM grown on raffinose - an emerging prebiotic.

Whole cell and surface proteomes were analyzed together with adhesive properties of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM (NCFM) grown on the emerging prebiotic raffinose, exemplifying a synbiotic. Adhesion of NCFM to mucin and intestinal HT-29 cells increased three-fold after culture with raffinose versus glucose, as also visualized by scanning electron microscopy. Comparative proteomics using 2D-DIGE showed 43 unique proteins to change in relative abundance in whole cell lysates from NCFM grown on raffinose compared to glucose. Furthermore, 14 unique proteins in 18 spots of the surface subproteome underwent changes identified by differential 2DE, including elongation factor G, thermostable pullulanase, and phosphate starvation inducible stress-related protein increasing in a range of +2.1 - +4.7 fold. By contrast five known moonlighting proteins decreased in relative abundance by up to -2.4 fold. Enzymes involved in raffinose catabolism were elevated in the whole cell proteome; α-galactosidase (+13.9 fold); sucrose phosphorylase (+5.4 fold) together with metabolic enzymes from the Leloir pathway for galactose utilization and the glycolysis; ß-galactosidase (+5.7 fold); galactose (+2.9/+3.1 fold) and fructose (+2.8 fold) kinases. The insights at the molecular and cellular levels contributed to the understanding of the interplay of a synbiotic composed of NCFM and raffinose with the host.

Transcriptional analysis of oligosaccharide utilization by Bifidobacterium lactis Bl-04.

BACKGROUND: Probiotic bifidobacteria in combination with prebiotic carbohydrates have documented positive effects on human health regarding gastrointestinal disorders and improved immunity, however the selective routes of uptake remain unknown for most candidate prebiotics. The differential transcriptomes of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis Bl-04, induced by 11 potential prebiotic oligosaccharides were analyzed to identify the genetic loci involved in the uptake and catabolism of α- and ß-linked hexoses, and ß-xylosides. RESULTS: The overall transcriptome was modulated dependent on the type of glycoside (galactosides, glucosides or xylosides) utilized. Carbohydrate transporters of the major facilitator superfamily (induced by gentiobiose and ß-galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS)) and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters (upregulated by cellobiose, GOS, isomaltose, maltotriose, melibiose, panose, raffinose, stachyose, xylobiose and ß-xylo-oligosaccharides) were differentially upregulated, together with glycoside hydrolases from families 1, 2, 13, 36, 42, 43 and 77. Sequence analysis of the identified solute-binding proteins that determine the specificity of ABC transporters revealed similarities in the breadth and selectivity of prebiotic utilization by bifidobacteria. CONCLUSION: This study identified the differential gene expression for utilization of potential prebiotics highlighting the extensive capabilities of Bifidobacterium lactis Bl-04 to utilize oligosaccharides. Results provide insights into the ability of this probiotic microbe to utilize indigestible carbohydrates in the human gastrointestinal tract.

Two-dimensional gel-based alkaline proteome of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM.

Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM (NCFM) is a well-documented probiotic bacterium isolated from human gut. Detailed 2D gel-based NCFM proteomics addressed the so-called alkaline range, i.e., pH 6-11. Proteins were identified in 150 of the 202 spots picked from the Coomassie Brilliant Blue stained 2D gel using MALDI-TOF-MS. The 102 unique gene products among the 150 protein identifications were assigned to different functional categories, and evaluated by considering a calculated distribution of abundance as well as grand average of hydrophobicity values. None of the very few available lactic acid bacteria proteome reference maps included the range of pI >7.0. The present report of such data on the proteome of NCFM fundamentally complements current knowledge on protein profiles limited to the acid and neutral pH range.

Association between the ABO blood group and the human intestinal microbiota composition.

BACKGROUND: The mucus layer covering the human intestinal epithelium forms a dynamic surface for host-microbial interactions. In addition to the environmental factors affecting the intestinal equilibrium, such as diet, it is well established that the microbiota composition is individually driven, but the host factors determining the composition have remained unresolved. RESULTS: In this study, we show that ABO blood group is involved in differences in relative proportion and overall profiles of intestinal microbiota. Specifically, the microbiota from the individuals harbouring the B antigen (secretor B and AB) differed from the non-B antigen groups and also showed higher diversity of the Eubacterium rectale-Clostridium coccoides (EREC) and Clostridium leptum (CLEPT) -groups in comparison with other blood groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our novel finding indicates that the ABO blood group is one of the genetically determined host factors modulating the composition of the human intestinal microbiota, thus enabling new applications in the field of personalized nutrition and medicine.

Treatment of bran containing bread by baking enzymes; effect on the growth of probiotic bacteria on soluble dietary fiber extract in vitro.

Different ways of treating bran by baking enzymes prior to dough making and the baking process were used to increase the amount of water-soluble dietary fiber (DF) in wheat bread with added bran. Soluble DF was extracted from the bread with water and separated from the digestible material with gastrointestinal tract enzymes and by solvent precipitation. The baking enzyme mixtures tested (xylanase and glucanase/cellulase, with and without lipase) increased the amounts of soluble arabinoxylan and protein resistant to digestion. The isolated fiber was used as a growth substrate for 11 probiotic and intestinal Bifidobacterium strains, for commensal strains of Bacteroides fragilis and Escherichia coli, and for potential intestinal pathogenic strains of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella typhimurium, and Clostridium perfringens. Fermentation analyses indicated that the tested strains had varying capacity to grow in the presence of the extracted fiber. Of the tested probiotic strains B. longum species generally showed the highest ability to utilize the fiber extracts, although the potential pathogens tested also showed an ability to grow on these fiber extracts. In sum, the enzymes used to improve the baking process for high-fiber bread can also be used to produce in situ soluble fiber material, which in turn can exert prebiotic effects on certain potentially beneficial microbes.

Probiotic viability - does it matter?

Probiotics are viable by definition, and viability of probiotics is often considered to be a prerequisite for the health benefits. Indeed, the overwhelming majority of clinical studies in the field have been performed with viable probiotics. However, it has also been speculated that some of the mechanisms behind the probiotic health effects may not be dependent on the viability of the cells and, therefore, is also possible that also non-viable probiotics could have some health benefits. The efficacy of non-viable probiotics has been assessed in a limited number of studies, with varying success. While it is clear that viable probiotics are more effective than non-viable probiotics and that, in many cases, viability is indeed a prerequisite for the health benefit, there are also some cases where it appears that non-viable probiotics could also have beneficial effects on human health.

Proteome reference map of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM and quantitative proteomics towards understanding the prebiotic action of lactitol.

Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM is a probiotic bacterium adapted to survive in the gastrointestinal tract and with potential health benefits to the host. Lactitol is a synthetic sugar alcohol used as a sugar replacement in low calorie foods and selectively stimulating growth of L. acidophilus NCFM. In the present study the whole-cell extract proteome of L. acidophilus NCFM grown on glucose until late exponential phase was resolved by 2-DE (pH 3-7). A total of 275 unique proteins assigned to various physiological processes were identified from 650 spots. Differential 2-DE (DIGE) (pH 4-7) of L. acidophilus NCFM grown on glucose and lactitol, revealed 68 spots with modified relative intensity. Thirty-two unique proteins were identified in 41 of these spots changing 1.6-12.7-fold in relative abundance by adaptation of L. acidophilus NCFM to growth on lactitol. These proteins included ß-galactosidase small subunit, galactokinase, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase and UDP-glucose-4-epimerase, which all are potentially involved in lactitol metabolism. This first comprehensive proteome analysis of L. acidophilus NCFM provides insights into protein abundance changes elicited by the prebiotic lactitol.

Probiotics and prebiotics: clinical effects in allergic disease.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This paper summarizes recent publications on probiotics and prebiotics in allergic disease. It focuses on clinical studies of prevention or treatment of allergic disease. RECENT FINDINGS: Studies suggest a role for certain probiotics (alone or with prebiotics) in the prevention of atopic eczema. Treatment during the prenatal period appears to be important for beneficial effects. The use of probiotics for the treatment of established allergic disease is less promising, despite some positive results. A Cochrane systematic review concluded that, when the results for the different probiotic strains used in clinical trials are pooled, probiotics are not effective for the treatment of eczema. There are fewer studies of prebiotics for the treatment or prevention of allergic disease, but data suggest that prebiotic-supplemented formulas may be effective for preventing eczema in infants at high risk of developing allergic disease when breast-feeding is not possible. SUMMARY: Allergic diseases continue to increase in prevalence worldwide, and primary prevention of allergic disease has proved an elusive goal. Probiotic bacteria represent the most promising intervention for primary prevention that has been studied to date, and definitive intervention studies should now be a research priority.

Effect of molecule branching and glycosidic linkage on the degradation of polydextrose by gut microbiota.

Polydextrose is a randomly linked complex glucose oligomer that is widely used as a sugar replacer, bulking agent, dietary fiber and prebiotic. Polydextrose is poorly utilized by the host and, during gastrointestinal transit, it is slowly degraded by intestinal microbes, although it is not known which parts of the complex molecule are preferred by the microbes. The microbial degradation of polydextrose was assessed by using a simulated model of colonic fermentation. The degradation products and their glycosidic linkages were measured by combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, and compared to those of intact polydextrose. Fermentation resulted in an increase in the relative abundance of non-branched molecules with a concomitant decrease in single-branched glucose molecules and a reduced total number of branching points. A detailed analysis showed a preponderance of 1,6 pyranose linkages. The results of this study demonstrate how intestinal microbes selectively degrade polydextrose, and provide an insight into the preferences of gut microbiota in the presence of different glycosidic linkages.

T-bet+ Memory B Cells Link to Local Cross-Reactive IgG upon Human Rhinovirus Infection.

Human rhinoviruses cause the common cold and exacerbate chronic respiratory diseases. Although infection elicits neutralizing antibodies, these do not persist or cross-protect across multiple rhinovirus strains. To analyze rhinovirus-specific B cell responses in humans, we developed techniques using intact RV-A16 and RV-A39 for high-throughput high-dimensional single-cell analysis, with parallel assessment of antibody isotypes in an experimental infection model. Our approach identified T-bet+ B cells binding both viruses that account for ∼5% of CXCR5- memory B cells. These B cells infiltrate nasal tissue and expand in the blood after infection. Their rapid secretion of heterotypic immunoglobulin G (IgG) in vitro, but not IgA, matches the nasal antibody profile post-infection. By contrast, CXCR5+ memory B cells binding a single virus are clonally distinct, absent in nasal tissue, and secrete homotypic IgG and IgA, mirroring the systemic response. Temporal and spatial functions of dichotomous memory B cells might explain the ability to resolve infection while rendering the host susceptible to re-infection.

Some putative prebiotics increase the severity of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection in mice.

BACKGROUND: Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients believed to beneficially affect host health by selectively stimulating the growth of the beneficial bacteria residing in the gut. Such beneficial bacteria have been reported to protect against pathogenic infections. However, contradicting results on prevention of Salmonella infections with prebiotics have been published. The aim of the present study was to examine whether S. Typhimurium SL1344 infection in mice could be prevented by administration of dietary carbohydrates with different structures and digestibility profiles. BALB/c mice were fed a diet containing 10% of either of the following carbohydrates: inulin, fructo-oligosaccharide, xylo-oligosaccharide, galacto-oligosaccharide, apple pectin, polydextrose or beta-glucan for three weeks prior to oral Salmonella challenge (107 CFU) and compared to mice fed a cornstarch-based control diet. RESULTS: The mice fed with diets containing fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS) or xylo-oligosaccharide (XOS) had significantly higher (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05) numbers of S. Typhimurium SL1344 in liver, spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes when compared to the mice fed with the cornstarch-based control diet. Significantly increased amounts (P < 0.01) of Salmonella were detected in ileal and fecal contents of mice fed with diets supplemented with apple pectin, however these mice did not show significantly higher numbers of S. Typhimyrium in liver, spleen and lymph nodes than animals from the control group (P < 0.20).The acute-phase protein haptoglobin was a good marker for translocation of S. Typhimurium in mice. In accordance with the increased counts of Salmonella in the organs, serum concentrations of haptoglobin were significantly increased in the mice fed with FOS or XOS (P < 0.001). Caecum weight was increased in the mice fed with FOS (P < 0.01), XOS (P < 0.01), or polydextrose (P < 0.001), and caecal pH was reduced in the mice fed with polydextrose (P < 0.001). In vitro fermentation in monocultures revealed that S. Typhimurium SL1344 is capable of fermenting FOS, beta-glucan and GOS with a corresponding decline in pH. CONCLUSION: Supplementing a cornstarch-based rodent diet with 10% FOS or XOS was found to increase the translocation of S. Typhimurium SL1344 to internal organs in mice, while 10% apple pectin was found to increase the numbers of S. Typhimurium in intestinal content and feces.

Nasal microbiota clusters associate with inflammatory response, viral load, and symptom severity in experimental rhinovirus challenge.

The role of nasal and fecal microbiota in viral respiratory infections has not been established. We collected nasal swabs and washes, and fecal samples in a clinical study assessing the effect of probiotic Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis Bl-04 on experimental rhinovirus infection. The nasal and fecal microbiota were characterized by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The resulting data were compared with nasal inflammatory marker concentrations, viral load, and clinical symptoms. By using unsupervised clustering, the nasal microbiota divided into six clusters. The clusters predominant of Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium/Alloiococcus, Moraxella, and Pseudomonadaceae/Mixed had characteristic inflammatory marker and viral load profiles in nasal washes. The nasal microbiota clusters of subjects before the infection associated with the severity of clinical cold symptoms during rhinovirus infection. Rhinovirus infection and probiotic intervention did not significantly alter the composition of nasal or fecal microbiota. Our results suggest that nasal microbiota may influence the virus load, host innate immune response, and clinical symptoms during rhinovirus infection, however, further studies are needed.

Specific Bifidobacterium strains isolated from elderly subjects inhibit growth of Staphylococcus aureus.

Cell-free, pH-controlled supernatants of thirty-eight Bifidobacterium strains isolated from healthy elderly subjects were subjected to antimicrobial activity assay. Bioluminescent indicator strains Staphylococcus aureus RN4220, Escherichia coli K-12, and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium ATCC 14028 were used as targets of antimicrobial activity. The effect of nutrient depletion on the inhibition was eliminated with spent-culture controls. Three out of thirty-eight Bifidobacterium strains were capable of inhibiting the growth of S. aureus. The inhibition was equal to 23.2+/-19.1% to 50.4+/-26.7% of the inhibition caused by 50 IU/ml nisin. Reuterin-producing positive strain Lactobacillus reuteri SD2112 was capable of 86.0+/-24.6% inhibition, but Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12, a known probiotic strain, showed no inhibition. None of the strains was capable of inhibiting the growth of E. coli or S. enterica. The observed inhibition by bifidobacteria was related to hydrogen peroxide formation and possible production of heat-stable proteinaceous compounds. The results suggest that production of antimicrobial substances other than organic acids is not common among Bifidobacterium strains typical of elderly subjects. However, specific strains were identified which showed considerable inhibitory activity against S. aureus.

Mucin- and carbohydrate-stimulated adhesion and subproteome changes of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM.

Adhesion to intestinal mucosa is a crucial property for probiotic bacteria. Adhesion is thought to increase host-bacterial interactions, thus potentially enabling health benefits to the host. Molecular events connected with adhesion and surface proteome changes were investigated for the probiotic Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM cultured with established or emerging prebiotic carbohydrates as carbon source and in the presence of mucin, the glycoprotein of the epithelial mucus layer. Variation in adhesion to HT29-cells and mucin was associated with carbon source and mucin-induced subproteome abundancy differences. Specifically, while growth on fructooligosaccharides (FOS) only stimulated adhesion to intestinal HT-29 cells, cellobiose and polydextrose in addition increased adhesion to mucin. Adhesion to HT-29 cells increased by about 2-fold for bacteria grown on mucin-supplemented glucose. Comparative 2DE-MS surface proteome analysis showed different proteins in energy metabolism appearing on the surface, suggesting they exert moonlighting functions. Mucin-supplemented bacteria had relative abundance of pyruvate kinase and fructose-bisphosphate aldolase increased by about 2-fold while six spots with 3.2-2.1 fold reduced relative abundance comprised elongation factor G, phosphoglycerate kinase, BipAEFTU family GTP-binding protein, ribonucleoside triphosphate reductase, adenylosuccinate synthetase, 30S ribosomal protein S1, and manganese-dependent inorganic pyrophosphatase. Surface proteome of cellobiose- compared to glucose-grown L. acidophilus NCFM had phosphate starvation inducible protein stress-related, thermostable pullulanase, and elongation factor G increasing 4.4-2.4 fold, while GAPDH, elongation factor Ts, and pyruvate kinase were reduced by 2.0-1.5 fold in relative abundance. Addition of recombinant L. acidophilus NCFM elongation factor G and pyruvate kinase to a coated mucin layer significantly suppressed subsequent adhesion of the bacterium. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Human diet is important for intestinal health and food components, especially non-digestible carbohydrates can beneficially modify the microbiota. In the present study, effects of emerging and established prebiotic carbohydrates on the probiotic potential of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM were investigated by testing adhesion to a mucin layer and intestinal cells, and comparing this with changes in abundancy of surface proteins thought to be important for host interactions. Increased adhesion was observed following culturing of the bacterium with fructooligosaccharides, cellobiose or polydextrose, as well as mucin-supplemented glucose as carbon source. Enhanced adhesion ability can prolong bacterial residence in GIT yielding positive health effects. Higher relative abundance of certain surface proteins under various conditions (i.e. grown on cellobiose or mucin-supplemented glucose) suggested involvement of these proteins in adhesion, as confirmed by competition in case of two recombinantly produced moonlighting proteins. Combination of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM with different carbohydrates revealed potential bacterial determinants of synbiotic interactions, including stimulation of adhesion.

Data regarding the growth of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM on different carbohydrates and recombinant production of elongation factor G and pyruvate kinase.

The present study describes the growth of the very well-known probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM on different carbohydrates. Furthermore, recombinant production of putative moonlighting proteins elongation factor G and pyruvate kinase from this bacterium is described. For further and detailed interpretation of the data presented here, please see the research article "Mucin- and carbohydrate-stimulated adhesion and subproteome changes of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM" (Celebioglu et al., 2017) [1].

The Differential Proteome of the Probiotic Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM Grown on the Potential Prebiotic Cellobiose Shows Upregulation of Two ß -Glycoside Hydrolases.

Probiotics, prebiotics, and combinations thereof, that is, synbiotics, are known to exert beneficial health effects in humans; however interactions between pro- and prebiotics remain poorly understood at the molecular level. The present study describes changes in abundance of different proteins of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM (NCFM) when grown on the potential prebiotic cellobiose as compared to glucose. Cytosolic cell extract proteomes after harvest at late exponential phase of NCFM grown on cellobiose or glucose were analyzed by two dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) in the acidic (pH 4-7) and the alkaline (pH 6-11) regions showing a total of 136 spots to change in abundance. Proteins were identified by MS or MS/MS from 81 of these spots representing 49 unique proteins and either increasing 1.5-13.9-fold or decreasing 1.5-7.8-fold in relative abundance. Many of these proteins were associated with energy metabolism, including the cellobiose related glycoside hydrolases phospho-ß-glucosidase (LBA0881) and phospho-ß-galactosidase II (LBA0726). The data provide insight into the utilization of the candidate prebiotic cellobiose by the probiotic bacterium NCFM. Several of the upregulated or downregulated identified proteins associated with utilization of cellobiose indicate the presence of carbon catabolite repression and regulation of enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism.

Probiotic supplementation for respiratory and gastrointestinal illness symptoms in healthy physically active individuals.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: To examine the effect of supplementation with probiotics on respiratory and gastrointestinal illness in healthy active men and women. METHODS: A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial was conducted. Four hundred and sixty five participants (241 males; age 35 ± 12 y (mean ± SD) and 224 females; age 36 ± 12 y) were assigned to one of three groups: Group 1 - Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis Bl-04 (Bl-04) 2.0 × 10(9)colony forming units per day, CFU per day, Group 2 - Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis Bi-07 (NCFM & Bi-07) 5 × 10(9) CFU each per day) or Group 3 - placebo mixed in a drink. RESULTS: The risk of an upper respiratory illness episode was significantly lower in the Bl-04 group (hazard ratio 0.73; 95% confidence interval 0.55-0.95; P = 0.022) compared to placebo. There was no significant difference in illness risk between the NCFM & Bi-07 group (hazard ratio 0.81; 0.62-1.08; P = 0.15) and the placebo group. There was a 0.7 and 0.9 month delay in the median time to an illness episode in the Bl-04 and NCFM & Bi-07 groups respectively compared to placebo (placebo 2.5 months; Bl-04 3.2 months; NCFM & Bi-07 3.4 months). There were insufficient GI illness episodes for analysis. The NCFM & Bi-07 group but not the Bl-04 group undertook significantly more physical activity (8.5%; 6.7%-10%; P < 0.003) than the placebo group. CONCLUSION: The probiotic Bl-04 appears to be a useful nutritional supplement in reducing the risk of URTI in healthy physically-active adults. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: Number ACTRN12611000130965.