Anthelmintic activity of European fern extracts against Haemonchus contortus.

Most drugs used in the treatment of helminthiasis in humans and animals have lost their efficacy due to the development of drug-resistance in helminths. Moreover, since anthelmintics, like many pharmaceuticals, are now recognized as hazardous contaminants of the environment, returning to medicinal plants and their products represents an environmentally friendly way to treat helminthiasis. The goal of the present study was to test the anthelminthic activity of methanol extracts of eight selected European ferns from the genera Dryopteris, Athyrium and Blechnum against the nematode Haemonchus contortus, a widespread parasite of small ruminants. Eggs and adults of H. contortus drug-susceptible strain ISE and drug-resistant strain WR were isolated from experimentally infected sheep. The efficacy of fern extracts was assayed using egg hatch test and adults viability test based on ATP-level measurement. Among the ferns tested, only Dryopteris aemula extract (0.2 mg/mL) inhibited eggs hatching by 25% in comparison to control. Athyrium distentifolium, Dryopteris aemula and Dryopteris cambrensis were effective against H. contortus adults. In concentration 0.1 mg/mL, A. distentifolium, D. aemula, D. cambrensis significantly decreased the viability of females from ISE and WR strains to 36.2%, 51.9%, 32.9% and to 35.3%, 27.0%, 23.3%, respectively in comparison to untreated controls. None of the extracts exhibited toxicity in precise cut slices from ovine liver. Polyphenol's analysis identified quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, 3-hydroxybenzoic acid, caffeic acid, coumaric acid and protocatechuic acid as the major components of these anthelmintically active ferns.

Soybean (Glycine max) Is Able to Absorb, Metabolize and Accumulate Fenbendazole in All Organs Including Beans.

Although manure is an important source of minerals and organic compounds it represents a certain risk of spreading the veterinary drugs in the farmland and their permeation to human food. We tested the uptake of the anthelmintic drug fenbendazole (FBZ) by soybean, a common crop plant, from the soil and its biotransformation and accumulation in different soybean organs, including beans. Soybeans were cultivated in vitro or grown in a greenhouse in pots. FBZ was extensively metabolized in roots of in vitro seedlings, where sixteen metabolites were identified, and less in leaves, where only two metabolites were found. The soybeans in greenhouse absorbed FBZ by roots and translocated it to the leaves, pods, and beans. In roots, leaves, and pods two metabolites were identified. In beans, FBZ and one metabolite was found. FBZ exposure did not affect the plant fitness or yield, but reduced activities of some antioxidant enzymes and isoflavonoids content in the beans. In conclusion, manure or biosolids containing FBZ and its metabolites represent a significant risk of these pharmaceuticals entering food consumed by humans or animal feed. In addition, the presence of these drugs in plants can affect plant metabolism, including the production of isoflavonoids.

The Identification of Metabolites and Effects of Albendazole in Alfalfa (Medicago sativa).

Albendazole (ABZ), a widely used anthelmintic drug, enters the environment mainly via livestock excrements. To evaluate the environmental impact of ABZ, the knowledge of its uptake, effects and metabolism in all non-target organisms, including plants, is essential. The present study was designed to identify the metabolic pathway of ABZ and to test potential ABZ phytotoxicity in fodder plant alfalfa, with seeds and in vitro regenerants used for these purposes. Alfalfa was chosen, as it may meet manure from ABZ-treated animals in pastures and fields. Alfalfa is often used as a feed of livestock, which might already be infected with helminths. The obtained results showed that ABZ did not inhibit alfalfa seed germination and germ growth, but evoked stress and a toxic effect in alfalfa regenerants. Alfalfa regenerants were able to uptake ABZ and transform it into 21 metabolites. UHPLC-MS/MS analysis revealed three new ABZ metabolites that have not been described yet. The discovery of the parent compound ABZ together with the anthelmintically active and instable metabolites in alfalfa leaves shows that the contact of fodder plants with ABZ-containing manure might represent not only a danger for herbivorous invertebrates, but also may cause the development of ABZ resistance in helminths.

The Uptake of Ivermectin and Its Effects in Roots, Leaves and Seeds of Soybean (Glycine max).

In recent years interest has grown in the occurrence and the effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment. The aim of this work is to evaluate the risk of fertilizing crops with manure from livestock treated with anthelmintics. The present study was designed to follow the fate of the commonly used anthelmintic drug, ivermectin (IVM) and its metabolites in soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), a plant that is grown and consumed world-wide for its high content of nutritional and health-beneficial substances. In vitro plantlets and soybean plants, cultivated in a greenhouse, were used for this purpose. Our results showed the uptake of IVM and its translocation to the leaves, but not in the pods and the beans. Four IVM metabolites were detected in the roots, and one in the leaves. IVM exposure decreased slightly the number and weight of the beans and induced changes in the activities of antioxidant enzymes. In addition, the presence of IVM affected the proportion of individual isoflavones and reduced the content of isoflavones aglycones, which might decrease the therapeutic value of soybeans. Fertilization of soybean fields with manure from IVM-treated animals appears to be safe for humans, due to the absence of IVM in beans, the food part of plants. On the other hand, it could negatively affect soybean plants and herbivorous invertebrates.

Transcriptomic response of Arabidopsis thaliana roots to naproxen and praziquantel.

Exposition to pharmaceutical compounds released to the environment is considered as a potential risk for various organisms. We exposed Arabidopsis thaliana plants to naproxen (NAP) and praziquantel (PZQ) in 5 µM concentration for 2 days and recorded transcriptomic response in their roots with the aim to estimate ecotoxicity and to identify gene candidates potentially involved in metabolism of both compounds. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug NAP up-regulated 105 and down-regulated 29 genes (p-value ≤ 0.1, fold change ≥ 2), while anthelmintic PZQ up-regulated 389 and down-regulated 353 genes with more rigorous p-value ≤ 0.001 (fold change ≥ 2). High number of up-regulated genes coding for heat shock proteins and other genes involved in response to biotic and abiotic stresses as well as down-regulation of genes involved in processes such as cell proliferation, transcription and water transport indicates serious negative effect of PZQ. NAP up-regulated mostly genes involved in various biological processes and signal transduction and down-regulated mainly genes involved in signal transduction and electron transport or energy pathways. Further, two cytochrome P450s (demethylation) and one methyltransferase (methylation of carboxyl group) were identified as candidates for phase I and several glutathione- and glycosyltransferases (conjugation) for phase II of NAP metabolism. Cytochrome P450s, glutathione and glycosyltransferases seem to play role also in metabolism of PZQ. Up-regulation of several ABC and MATE transporters by NAP and PZQ indicated their role in transport of both compounds.

Transcriptomic response of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. roots to ibuprofen.

Surface waters in urban areas are contaminated by ibuprofen (IBP), a popular and extensively used anti-inflammatory drug. In this study, we investigated the transcriptomic response in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. roots with the aim of revealing genes that are potentially involved in IBP detoxification and elucidating the effect of IBP on plants. IBP upregulated 63 and downregulated 38 transcripts (p-value < 0.1, fold change ≥2) after 2-day exposure to a 5-µM (1.03 mg/L) concentration of IBP under hydroponic conditions. Although the IBP concentration used in the experiment was highly relative to the concentrations found in rivers and wastewater, the number of genes with transcriptional changes was relatively low. The upregulation of cytochrome P450s, glutathione S-transferases, and UDP-glycosyltransferases indicates the occurrence of IBP oxidation in the first phase, followed by conjugation with glutathione and sugar in the second detoxification phase. ABC transporters could be involved in the transport of IBP and its metabolites. The identification of genes potentially involved in IBP detoxification could be useful in an IBP phytoremediation approach.

In vitro anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory activity of leaf and fruit extracts from Vaccinium bracteatum Thunb.

The aim of this study was to evaluate in vitro anti-proliferative (tested on MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, and MCF-10A cell lines) and anti-inflammatory (evaluated as inhibition of prostaglandin E2 synthesis catalyzed by cyclooxygenase-2) effect of various extracts from Vaccinium bracteatum leaves and fruits. The highest anti-proliferative effect possessed leaf dichloromethane extract with IC50 values ranging from 93 to 198 µg/mL. In the case of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition, n-hexane, dichloromethane, and ethanol fruit extracts showed the best activity with IC50 values = 2.0, 5.4, and 12.7 µg/mL, respectively. These results indicate that V. bracteatum leaves and fruits could be useful source of anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory compounds.

The traditional utilization, biological activity and chemical composition of edible fern species.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ferns form an important part of the human diet. Young fern fiddleheads are mostly consumed as vegetables, while the rhizomes are often extracted for starch. These edible ferns are also often employed in traditional medicine, where all parts of the plant are used, mostly to prepare extracts. These extracts are applied either externally as lotions and baths or internally as potions, decoctions and teas. Ailments traditionally treated with ferns include coughs, colds, fevers, pain, burns and wounds, asthma, rheumatism, diarrhoea, or skin diseases (eczema, rashes, itching, leprosy). AIM OF THE REVIEW: This review aims to compile the worldwide knowledge on the traditional medicinal uses of edible fern species correlating to reported biological activities and isolated bioactive compounds. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The articles and books published on edible fern species were searched through the online databases Web of Science, Pubmed and Google Scholar, with critical evaluation of the hits. The time period up to the end of 2022 was included. RESULTS: First, the edible fern species were identified based on the literature data. A total of 90 fern species were identified that are eaten around the world and are also used in traditional medicine. Ailments treated are often associated with inflammation or bacterial infection. However, only the most common and well-known fern species, were investigated for their biological activity. The most studied species are Blechnum orientale L., Cibotium barometz (L.) J. Sm., Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw., Marsilea minuta L., Osmunda japonica Thunb., Polypodium vulgare L., and Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.) Bedd. Most of the fern extracts have been studied for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities. Not surprisingly, antioxidant capacity has been the most studied, with results reported for 28 edible fern species. Ferns have been found to be very rich sources of flavonoids, polyphenols, polyunsaturated fatty acids, carotenoids, terpenoids and steroids and most of these compounds are remarkable free radical scavengers responsible for the outstanding antioxidant capacity of fern extracts. As far as clinical trials are concerned, extracts from only three edible fern species have been evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: The extracts of edible fern species exert antioxidant anti-inflammatory and related biological activities, which is consistent with their traditional medicinal use in the treatment of wounds, burns, colds, coughs, skin diseases and intestinal diseases. However, studies to prove pharmacological activities are scarce, and require chemical-biological standardization. Furthermore, correct botanical classification needs to be included in publications to simplify data acquisition. Finally, more in-depth phytochemical studies, allowing the linking of traditional use to pharmacological relevance are needed to be done in a standardized way.

Antiproliferative Activity of Buddleja saligna (Willd.) against Melanoma and In Vivo Modulation of Angiogenesis.

Melanoma cells secrete pro-angiogenic factors, which stimulates growth, proliferation and metastasis, and therefore are key therapeutic targets. Buddleja saligna (BS), and an isolated triterpenoid mixture (DT-BS-01) showed a fifty percent inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 33.80 ± 1.02 and 5.45 ± 0.19 µg/mL, respectively, against melanoma cells (UCT-MEL-1) with selectivity index (SI) values of 1.64 and 5.06 compared to keratinocytes (HaCat). Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibition was observed with IC50 values of 35.06 ± 2.96 (BS) and 26.40 ± 4.19 µg/mL (DT-BS-01). BS (30 µg/mL) significantly inhibited interleukin (IL)-6 (83.26 ± 17.60%) and IL-8 (100 ± 0.2%) production, whereas DT-BS-01 (5 µg/mL) showed 51.07 ± 2.83 (IL-6) and 0 ± 6.7% (IL-8) inhibition. Significant vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibition, by 15.84 ± 4.54 and 12.21 ± 3.48%, respectively, was observed. In the ex ovo chick embryo yolk sac membrane assay (YSM), BS (15 µg/egg) significantly reduced new blood vessel formation, with 53.34 ± 11.64% newly formed vessels. Silver and palladium BS nanoparticles displayed noteworthy SI values. This is the first report on the significant anti-angiogenic activity of BS and DT-BS-01 and should be considered for preclinical trials as there are currently no US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs to inhibit angiogenesis in melanoma.

Synthesis, Inhibitory Activity, and In Silico Modeling of Selective COX-1 Inhibitors with a Quinazoline Core.

Selective cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) inhibition has got into the spotlight with the discovery of COX-1 upregulation in various cancers and the cardioprotective role of COX-1 in control of thrombocyte aggregation. Yet, COX-1-selective inhibitors are poorly explored. Thus, three series of quinazoline derivatives were prepared and tested for their potential inhibitory activity toward COX-1 and COX-2. Of the prepared compounds, 11 exhibited interesting COX-1 selectivity, with 8 compounds being totally COX-1-selective. The IC50 value of the best quinazoline inhibitor was 64 nM. The structural features ensuring COX-1 selectivity were elucidated using in silico modeling.

Nutritional and Antioxidant Potential of Fiddleheads from European Ferns.

Ferns are part of the diet and traditional medicine in East Asia, North America, and Oceania, however, their importance has been forgotten in Europe. Here, the nutritional and antioxidant potential of young fern fronds (fiddleheads) of eight families were studied. Most of the tested fern species excelled in high antioxidant capacity when compared to the reference leafy vegetables spinach and rocket. On average, the total phenol content reached 220 mg·g-1 of extract dry weight for all fiddleheads, and 15 out of 24 tested species exceeded 1 g Trolox equivalent per gram of extract dry weight in Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) assay. On the other hand, fiddleheads contained a comparable amount of carotenoids and ascorbic acid with the reference vegetables. In the case of fatty acid composition, fiddleheads contained especially high amounts of essential omega-3 (n3) and omega-6 (n6) polyunsaturated fatty acids with a beneficial n6/n3 ratio. The n6/n3 ratio in all tested species was between 2 and 6.4, whereas the ratio in the reference vegetables was below 0.4. All in all, fiddleheads from European ferns are a rich source of valuable antioxidants and essential fatty acids with a desirable n-6/n-3 ratio and may thus form an alternative source of these compounds, especially for those people not consuming fish and fish products.

European ferns as rich sources of antioxidants in the human diet.

Wild edible plants have become an attractive variation of the human diet, especially in East Asia, North America, and Oceania. However, their potential in nutrition is only rarely considered in Europe. This study aims to reveal the nutritional and antioxidant potential of mature fern leaves from 13 families grown in Europe. We found that most of the examined fern species displayed a high antioxidant capacity, exceeding 0.5 g Trolox equivalent per gram of extract dry weight in ORAC assay and reaching IC50 values lower than 30 µg·mL-1 in DPPH assay (with the value for Trolox 7 µg·mL-1). Most of the species also appeared to be a good source of carotenoids, especially of lutein (205 µg·g-1 DW on average) and ß-carotene (161 µg·g-1 DW on average) when compared to the reference leafy vegetables spinach and rocket. A cytotoxicity test using ovine hepatocytes showed a non-toxicity effect of fern leaf extracts.

Leaves and Fruits Preparations of Pistacia lentiscus L.: A Review on the Ethnopharmacological Uses and Implications in Inflammation and Infection.

There is an increasing interest in revisiting plants for drug discovery, proving scientifically their role as remedies. The aim of this review was to give an overview of the ethnopharmacological uses of Pistacia lentiscus L. (PlL) leaves and fruits, expanding the search for the scientific discovery of their chemistry, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and antimicrobial activities. PlL is a wild-growing shrub rich in terpenoids and polyphenols, the oil and extracts of which have been widely used against inflammation and infections, and as wound healing agents. The more recurrent components in PlL essential oil (EO) are represented by α-pinene, terpinene, caryophyllene, limonene and myrcene, with high variability in concentration depending on the Mediterranean country. The anti-inflammatory activity of the oil mainly occurs due to the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the arachidonic acid cascade. Interestingly, the capacity against COX-2 and LOX indicates PlL EO as a dual inhibitory compound. The high content of polyphenols enriching the extracts provide explanations for the known biological properties of the plant. The protective effect against reactive oxygen species is of wide interest. In particular, their anthocyanins content greatly clarifies their antioxidative capacity. Further, the antimicrobial activity of PlL oil and extracts includes the inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, periodontal bacteria and Candida spp. In conclusion, the relevant scientific properties indicate PlL as a nutraceutical and also as a therapeutic agent against a wide range of diseases based on inflammation and infections.

Pharmaceuticals in environment: the effect of ivermectin on ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.).

The anthelmintic drug ivermectin (IVM), used frequently especially in veterinary medicine, enters the environment mainly via excrements in pastures and could negatively affect non-target organisms including plants. The present study was designed to follow up on our previous investigations into IVM metabolism and its effects in the common meadow plant ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) during long-term exposure of both cell suspensions and whole plant regenerants. IVM uptake, distribution, and biotransformation pathways were studied using UHPLC-MS analysis. In addition, the IVM effect on antioxidant enzymes activities, proline concentration, the content of all polyphenols, and the level of the main bioactive secondary metabolites was also tested with the goal of learning more about IVM-induced stress in the plant organism. Our results showed that the ribwort plantain was able to uptake IVM and transform it via demethylation and hydroxylation. Seven and six metabolites respectively were detected in cell suspensions and in the roots of regenerants. However, only the parent drug IVM was detected in the leaves of the regenerants. IVM accumulated in the roots and leaves of plants might negatively affect ecosystems due to its toxicity to herbivorous invertebrates. As IVM exposition increased the activity of catalase, the concentration of proline and polyphenols, as well as decreased the activity of ascorbate peroxidase and the concentration of the bioactive compounds acteoside and aucubin, long-term exposition of the ribwort plantain to IVM caused abiotic stress and might decrease the medicinal value of this herb.

The Pharmaceutical Ability of Pistacia lentiscus L. Leaves Essential Oil Against Periodontal Bacteria and Candida sp. and Its Anti-Inflammatory Potential.

BACKGROUND: Given the increasing request for natural pharmacological molecules, this study assessed the antimicrobial capacity of Pistacia lentiscus L. essential oil (PLL-EO) obtained from the leaves of wild plants growing in North Sardinia (Italy) toward a wide range of periodontal bacteria and Candida, including laboratory and clinical isolates sp., together with its anti-inflammatory activity and safety. METHODS: PLL-EO was screened by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined. The anti-inflammatory activity was measured by cyclooxygenase (COX-1/2) and lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibition, while the antioxidant capacity was determined electro-chemically and by the MTT assay. The WST-1 assay was used to ascertain cytotoxicity toward four lines of oral cells. RESULTS: According to the concentrations of terpens, PLL-EO is a pharmacologically-active phytocomplex. MICs against periodontal bacteria ranged between 3.13 and 12.5 µg/ml, while against Candida sp. they were between 6.25 and 12.5 µg/mL. Oxidation by COX-1/2 and LOX was inhibited by 80% and 20% µg/mL of the oil, respectively. Antioxidant activity seemed negligible, and no cytotoxicity arose. CONCLUSIONS: PLL-EO exhibits a broad-spectrum activity against periodontal bacteria and Candida, with an interesting dual inhibitory capacity toward COX-2 and LOX inflammatory enzymes, and without side effects against oral cells.

Exploring the Anti-Acne Potential of Impepho [Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Sweet] to Combat Cutibacterium acnes Virulence.

The Gram-positive bacterium Cutibacterium acnes (previously Propionibacterium acnes), plays an important role in the pathogenesis and progression of the dermatological skin disorder acne vulgaris. The methanolic extract of Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Sweet (HO-MeOH) was investigated for its ability to target bacterial growth and pathogenic virulence factors associated with acne progression. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of HO-MeOH identified α-humulene (3.94%), α-curcumene (3.74%), and caryophyllene (8.12%) as major constituents, which correlated with previous reports of other Helichrysum species. The HO-MeOH extract exhibited potent antimicrobial activity against C. acnes (ATCC 6919) with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 7.81 µg/ml. It enhanced the antimicrobial activity of benzoyl peroxide (BPO). The extract showed high specificity against C. acnes cell aggregation at sub-inhibitory concentrations, preventing biofilm formation. Mature C. acnes biofilms were disrupted at a sub-inhibitory concentration of 3.91 µg/ml. At 100 µg/ml, HO-MeOH reduced interleukin-1α (IL-1α) cytokine levels in C. acnes-induced human keratinocytes (HaCaT) by 11.08%, highlighting its potential as a comedolytic agent for the treatment of comedonal acne. The extract exhibited a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 157.50 µg/ml against lipase enzyme activity, an enzyme responsible for sebum degradation, ultimately causing inflammation. The extract's anti-inflammatory activity was tested against various targets associated with inflammatory activation by the bacterium. The extract inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokine levels of IL-8 by 48.31% when compared to C. acnes-induced HaCaT cells at 7.81 µg/ml. It exhibited cyclooxygenase-II (COX-II) enzyme inhibition with an IC50 of 22.87 µg/ml. Intracellular nitric oxide (NO) was inhibited by 40.39% at 7.81 µg/ml when compared with NO production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells. The intracellular NO inhibition was potentially due to the 2.14 fold reduction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene expression. The HO-MeOH extract exhibited an IC50 of 145.45 µg/ml against virulent hyaluronidase enzyme activity, which is responsible for hyaluronan degradation and scar formation. This study provides scientific validation for the traditional use of H. odoratissimum as an ointment for pimples, not only due to its ability to control C. acnes proliferation but also due to its inhibitory activity on various targets associated with bacterial virulence leading to acne progression.

The uptake, effects and biotransformation of monepantel in meadow plants used as a livestock feed.

Drugs are potentially dangerous environmental contaminants, as they are designed to have biological effects at low concentrations. Monepantel (MOP), an amino-acetonitrile derivative, is frequently used veterinary anthelmintics, but information about MOP environmental circulation and impact is almost non-existent. We studied the phytotoxicity, uptake and biotransformation of MOP in two fodder plants, Plantago lanceolata and Medicago sativa. The seeds and whole plant regenerants were cultivated with MOP. The plant roots and the leaves were collected after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 weeks of cultivation. The lengths of roots and proline concentrations in the roots and leaves were measured to evaluate MOP phytotoxicity. The UHPLC-MS/MS technique with a Q-TOF mass analyser was used for the identification and semi-quantification of MOP and its metabolites. Our results showed no phytotoxicity of MOP. However, both plants were able to uptake, transport and metabolize MOP. Comparing both plants, the uptake of MOP was much more extensive in Medicago sativa (almost 10-times) than in Plantago lanceolate. Moreover, 9 various metabolites of MOP were detected in Medicago sativa, while only 7 MOP metabolites were found in Plantago lanceolata. Based on metabolites structures, scheme of the metabolic pathways of MOP in both plants was proposed. MOP and its main metabolite (MOP sulfone), both anthelmintically active, were present not only in roots but also in leaves that can be consumed by animals. This indicates the potential for undesirable circulation of MOP in the environment, which could lead to many pharmacological and toxicological consequences.

ZnO nanoparticle effects on hormonal pools in Arabidopsis thaliana.

At present, nanoparticles have been more and more used in a wide range of areas. However, very little is known about the mechanisms of their impact on plants, as both positive and negative effects have been reported. As plant interactions with the environment are mediated by plant hormones, complex phytohormone analysis has been performed in order to characterize the effect of ZnO nanoparticles (mean size 30nm, concentration range 0.16-100mgL-1) on Arabidopsis thaliana plants. Taking into account that plant hormones exhibit high tissue-specificity as well as an intensive cross-talk in the regulation of growth and development as well as defense, plant responses were followed by determination of the content of five main phytohormones (cytokinins, auxins, abscisic acid, salicylic acid and jasmonic acid) in apices, leaves and roots. Increasing nanoparticle concentration was associated with gradually suppressed biosynthesis of the growth promoting hormones cytokinins and auxins in shoot apical meristems (apices). In contrast, cis-zeatin, a cytokinin associated with stress responses, was elevated by 280% and 590% upon exposure to nanoparticle concentrations 20 and 100mgL-1, respectively, in roots. Higher ZnO nanoparticle doses resulted in up-regulation of the stress hormone abscisic acid, mainly in apices and leaves. In case of salicylic acid, stimulation was found in leaves and roots. The other stress hormone jasmonic acid (as well as its active metabolite jasmonate isoleucine) was suppressed at the presence of nanoparticles. The earliest response to nanoparticles, associated with down-regulation of growth as well as of cytokinins and auxins, was observed in apices. At higher dose, up-regulation of abscisic acid, was detected. This increase, together with elevation of the other stress hormone - salicylic acid, indicates that plants sense nanoparticles as severe stress. Gradual accumulation of cis-zeatin in roots may contribute to relatively higher stress resistance of this tissue.