A case report of two Moroccan patients with hereditary neurological disorders and molecular modeling study on the S72L de novo PMP22 variant.

Hereditary neurological disorders represent a wild group of hereditary illnesses affecting mainly the nervous system, the majority of which have a Mendelian inheritance pattern. Here we present the case of two Moroccan patients each affected by a different hereditary neurological disorder. In the first patient WES analysis revealed the presence of the p.Ser72Leu de novo mutation in the PMP22 gene reported for the first time in Africa, specifically in Morocco. This variant is predicted to be in a mutation "hot-spot" region causing Dejerine-Sottas syndrome called also Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 3. The molecular modeling study suggests an important alteration of hydrogen and hydrophobic interactions between the residue in position 72 of the PMP22 protein and its surrounding amino acids. On the other hand, the p.Ala177Thr mutation on the RNASEH2B gene, responsible of Aicardi-Goutières syndrome 2, was carried in a homozygous state by the second patient descending from a consanguineous family. This mutation is common among the Moroccan population as well as in other North African countries. The present results contributed to a better follow-up of both cases allowing better symptom management with convenient treatments.

STochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy (STORM) reveals the nanoscale organization of pathological aggregates in human brain.

AIMS: Histological analysis of brain tissue samples provides valuable information about the pathological processes leading to common neurodegenerative disorders. In this context, the development of novel high-resolution imaging approaches is a current challenge in neuroscience. METHODS: To this end, we used a recent super-resolution imaging technique called STochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy (STORM) to analyse human brain sections. We combined STORM cell imaging protocols with neuropathological techniques to image cryopreserved brain samples from control subjects and patients with neurodegenerative diseases. RESULTS: This approach allowed us to perform 2D-, 3D- and two-colour-STORM in neocortex, white matter and brainstem samples. STORM proved to be particularly effective at visualizing the organization of dense protein inclusions and we imaged with a <50 nm resolution pathological aggregates within the central nervous system of patients with Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Lewy body dementia and fronto-temporal lobar degeneration. Aggregated Aß branches appeared reticulated and cross-linked in the extracellular matrix, with widths from 60 to 240 nm. Intraneuronal Tau and TDP-43 inclusions were denser, with a honeycomb pattern in the soma and a filamentous organization in the axons. Finally, STORM imaging of α-synuclein pathology revealed the internal organization of Lewy bodies that could not be observed by conventional fluorescence microscopy. CONCLUSIONS: STORM imaging of human brain samples opens further gates to a more comprehensive understanding of common neurological disorders. The convenience of this technique should open a straightforward extension of its application for super-resolution imaging of the human brain, with promising avenues to current challenges in neuroscience.

Nuclear gene OPA1, encoding a mitochondrial dynamin-related protein, is mutated in dominant optic atrophy.

Optic atrophy type 1 (OPA1, MIM 165500) is a dominantly inherited optic neuropathy occurring in 1 in 50,000 individuals that features progressive loss in visual acuity leading, in many cases, to legal blindness. Phenotypic variations and loss of retinal ganglion cells, as found in Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), have suggested possible mitochondrial impairment. The OPA1 gene has been localized to 3q28-q29 (refs 13-19). We describe here a nuclear gene, OPA1, that maps within the candidate region and encodes a dynamin-related protein localized to mitochondria. We found four different OPA1 mutations, including frameshift and missense mutations, to segregate with the disease, demonstrating a role for mitochondria in retinal ganglion cell pathophysiology.

TRPV4 channels mediate the infrared laser-evoked response in sensory neurons.

Infrared laser irradiation has been established as an appropriate stimulus for primary sensory neurons under conditions where sensory receptor cells are impaired or lost. Yet, development of clinical applications has been impeded by lack of information about the molecular mechanisms underlying the laser-induced neural response. Here, we directly address this question through pharmacological characterization of the biological response evoked by midinfrared irradiation of isolated retinal and vestibular ganglion cells from rodents. Whole cell patch-clamp recordings reveal that both voltage-gated calcium and sodium channels contribute to the laser-evoked neuronal voltage variations (LEVV). In addition, selective blockade of the LEVV by micromolar concentrations of ruthenium red and RN 1734 identifies thermosensitive transient receptor potential vanilloid channels as the primary effectors of the chain reaction triggered by midinfrared laser irradiation. These results have the potential to facilitate greatly the design of future prosthetic devices aimed at restoring neurosensory capacities in disabled patients.

Multi-system neurological disease is common in patients with OPA1 mutations.

Additional neurological features have recently been described in seven families transmitting pathogenic mutations in OPA1, the most common cause of autosomal dominant optic atrophy. However, the frequency of these syndromal 'dominant optic atrophy plus' variants and the extent of neurological involvement have not been established. In this large multi-centre study of 104 patients from 45 independent families, including 60 new cases, we show that extra-ocular neurological complications are common in OPA1 disease, and affect up to 20% of all mutational carriers. Bilateral sensorineural deafness beginning in late childhood and early adulthood was a prominent manifestation, followed by a combination of ataxia, myopathy, peripheral neuropathy and progressive external ophthalmoplegia from the third decade of life onwards. We also identified novel clinical presentations with spastic paraparesis mimicking hereditary spastic paraplegia, and a multiple sclerosis-like illness. In contrast to initial reports, multi-system neurological disease was associated with all mutational subtypes, although there was an increased risk with missense mutations [odds ratio = 3.06, 95% confidence interval = 1.44-6.49; P = 0.0027], and mutations located within the guanosine triphosphate-ase region (odds ratio = 2.29, 95% confidence interval = 1.08-4.82; P = 0.0271). Histochemical and molecular characterization of skeletal muscle biopsies revealed the presence of cytochrome c oxidase-deficient fibres and multiple mitochondrial DNA deletions in the majority of patients harbouring OPA1 mutations, even in those with isolated optic nerve involvement. However, the cytochrome c oxidase-deficient load was over four times higher in the dominant optic atrophy + group compared to the pure optic neuropathy group, implicating a causal role for these secondary mitochondrial DNA defects in disease pathophysiology. Individuals with dominant optic atrophy plus phenotypes also had significantly worse visual outcomes, and careful surveillance is therefore mandatory to optimize the detection and management of neurological disability in a group of patients who already have significant visual impairment.

OPA1 alternate splicing uncouples an evolutionary conserved function in mitochondrial fusion from a vertebrate restricted function in apoptosis.

In most eucaryote cells, release of apoptotic proteins from mitochondria involves fission of the mitochondrial network and drastic remodelling of the cristae structures. The intramitochondrial dynamin OPA1, as a potential central actor of these processes, exists as eight isoforms resulting from the alternate splicing combinations of exons (Ex) 4, 4b and 5b, which functions remain undetermined. Here, we show that Ex4 that is conserved throughout evolution confers functions to OPA1 involved in the maintenance of the DeltaPsi(m) and in the fusion of the mitochondrial network. Conversely, Ex4b and Ex5b, which are vertebrate specific, define a function involved in cytochrome c release, an apoptotic process also restricted to vertebrates. The drastic changes of OPA1 variant abundance in different organs suggest that nuclear splicing can control mitochondrial dynamic fate and susceptibility to apoptosis and pathologies.

Lipidomics Reveals Cerebrospinal-Fluid Signatures of ALS.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the commonest adult-onset motor neuron disorder, is characterized by a survival span of only 2-5 years after onset. Relevant biomarkers or specific metabolic signatures would provide powerful tools for the management of ALS. The main objective of this study was to investigate the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) lipidomic signature of ALS patients by mass spectrometry to evaluate the diagnostic and predictive values of the profile. We showed that ALS patients (n = 40) displayed a highly significant specific CSF lipidomic signature compared to controls (n = 45). Phosphatidylcholine PC(36:4), higher in ALS patients (p = 0.0003) was the most discriminant molecule, and ceramides and glucosylceramides were also highly relevant. Analysis of targeted lipids in the brain cortex of ALS model mice confirmed the role of some discriminant lipids such as PC. We also obtained good models for predicting the variation of the ALSFRS-r score from the lipidome baseline, with an accuracy of 71% in an independent set of patients. Significant predictions of clinical evolution were found to be correlated to sphingomyelins and triglycerides with long-chain fatty acids. Our study, which shows extensive lipid remodelling in the CSF of ALS patients, provides a new metabolic signature of the disease and its evolution with good predictive performance.

Loss of function of Ywhah in mice induces deafness and cochlear outer hair cells' degeneration.

In vertebrates, 14-3-3 proteins form a family of seven highly conserved isoforms with chaperone activity, which bind phosphorylated substrates mostly involved in regulatory and checkpoint pathways. 14-3-3 proteins are the most abundant protein in the brain and are abundantly found in the cerebrospinal fluid in neurodegenerative diseases, suggesting a critical role in neuron physiology and death. Here we show that 14-3-3eta-deficient mice displayed auditory impairment accompanied by cochlear hair cells' degeneration. We show that 14-3-3eta is highly expressed in the outer and inner hair cells, spiral ganglion neurons of cochlea and retinal ganglion cells. Screening of YWHAH, the gene encoding the 14-3-3eta isoform, in non-syndromic and syndromic deafness, revealed seven non-synonymous variants never reported before. Among them, two were predicted to be damaging in families with syndromic deafness. In vitro, variants of YWHAH induce mild mitochondrial fragmentation and severe susceptibility to apoptosis, in agreement with a reduced capacity of mutated 14-3-3eta to bind the pro-apoptotic Bad protein. This study demonstrates that YWHAH variants can have a substantial effect on 14-3-3eta function and that 14-3-3eta could be a critical factor in the survival of outer hair cells.

Apisalpha2, Apisalpha7-1 and Apisalpha7-2: three new neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha-subunits in the honeybee brain.

Acetylcholine is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of insects. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which belong to the ligand-gated ion channel family, constitute important targets for insecticides. In the honeybee Apis mellifera, pharmacological evidence supports the existence of several nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. In this paper, we report the identification of three new genes that encode nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha-subunits in the honeybee. Phylogenetic comparisons with other ligand-gated ion channel subunit sequences support their classification as Apisalpha2, Apisalpha7-1 and Apisalpha7-2 subunits. Based on in situ hybridization experiments, we determined their expression patterns in the different brain regions of pupae and adult honeybees. Our results show that these nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits are differently expressed among the brain regions and that they appear at different stages of honeybee development.

The secondary structure of large-subunit rRNA divergent domains, a marker for protist evolution.

The secondary structure of the large-subunit ribosomal RNA (24-26S rRNA) has been studied with emphasis on comparative analysis of the folding patterns of the divergent domains in the available protist sequences, that is Prorocentrum micans (dinoflagellate), Saccharomyces carlsbergensis (yeast), Tetrahymena thermophila (ciliate), Physarum polycephalum and Dictyostelium discoideum (slime moulds), Crithidia fasciculata and Giardia lamblia (parasitic flagellates). The folding for the D3, D7a and D10 divergent domains has been refined and a consensus model for the protist 24-26S rRNA structure is proposed. Two hundred seventy-seven nucleotide-long aligned sequences representing all or part of the D3, H32-33, D8, D9 and D10 divergent domains are used for the construction of unrooted phylogenetic trees either calculated from a nucleotide difference matrix, or determined with the PAUP programme based on the parsimony method. Both phylogenies suggest three major branchings, the first leading to the dinoflagellate (which branches off first), ciliate and yeast, the second to the slime moulds, and the last to the parasitic flagellates.

Letter to the Editor: Silicon Reference Materials Certified for Isotope Abundances.

In a series of gas mass-spectrometric measurements performed near the highest attainable accuracy, samples from two highly homogeneous batches of silicon crystals and silica powder were compared directly with a synthetic mixture of the three stable isotopes of silicon. Thereby, this work not only established the "absolute" atomic weight of these batches, but also makes portions of these batches available as an Isotopie Reference Material for accurate isotopic abundance measurements in geochemical and other isotope-abundance studies of silicon.

[Hereditary optic neuropathies: from clinical signs to diagnosis]. / Les neuropathies optiques héréditaires: du signe clinique au diagnostic.

Inherited optic atrophy must be considered when working up any optic nerve involvement and any systemic disease with signs of optic atrophy, even with a negative family history. There are two classical forms: dominant optic atrophy, characterized by insidious, bilateral, slowly progressive visual loss and temporal disc pallor, and Leber's optic atrophy, characterized by acute loss of central vision followed by the same event in the fellow eye within a few weeks to months, with disc hyperemia in the acute phase. Family history is critical for diagnosis. In the absence of family history, the clinician must rule out an identifiable acquired cause, i.e. toxic, inflammatory, perinatal injury, traumatic or tumoral, with orbital and brain imaging (MRI). Recessive optic atrophies are more rare and more severe and occur as part of multisystemic disorders, particularly Wolfram syndrome (diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, and hearing loss). Effective treatments are limited; alcohol and smoking should be avoided. A cyclosporine trial (taken immediately upon visual loss in the first eye) is in progress in Leber's optic atrophy to prevent involvement of the fellow eye.

[A murine model of transitory optic neuropathy based on small interference RNA-induced OPA1 silencing in vivo (gene mutation associated with Kjer's disease)]. / Modèle murin de neuropathie optique transitoire par inhibition in vivo de l'expression d'OPA1 (gène impliqué dans la maladie de Kjer).

PURPOSE: Developing a murine model of OPA1 linked optic neuropathy. METHODS: Intravitreal injections (in adult C57BL/6J mice) of small interference RNA (siRNA) specific to OPA1 were performed in the left eye. The right eye served as control, injected with nonspecific siRNA (siRNA scramble). Visual evoked potentials and flash electroretinograms were performed 5 and 12 days after injection. Three months after injection, microscopy of optic nerve sections was performed. RESULTS: The electrophysiological tests showed a significant reduction in the VEP when the siRNA OPA1-injected eye was stimulated, compared with the control eye injected with siRNA scramble. The electroretinogram was normal in both eyes: no significant difference between the right and the left eye was found. Three months after injection, no measurable axonal degeneration was found in either eye. CONCLUSION: The reduced expression of OPA1 based on RNA silencing in adult mice could induce reversible dysfunction of retinal ganglion cells.

Molecular phylogeny of some polychaete annelids: an initial approach to the Atlantic-Mediterranean speciation problem.

The polychaete Eupolymnia nebulosa (family Terebellidae) displays two alternative modes of reproduction. In the Mediterranean, larvae are brooded in a mucous mass while in the Atlantic and English Channel, larvae follow a plank-tonic development. This paper attempts to discern whether this difference is expressed at the population, infraspecies, or species level. Specimens of E. nebulosa and representatives of a number of control species were sampled from Atlantic/English Channel and Mediterranean locations. Genetic sequencing of the Large-subunit ribosomal RNA 5' end of six representative species allowed one to infer the relative position of E. nebulosa within the Terebellidae and the position of the latter within the animal kingdom. The relative genetic distances calculated between the different species were also used to approach the speciation problem raised by the differences between the Mediterranean and Atlantic/English Channel population of E. nebulosa. The genetic distance between Mediterranean and Atlantic populations of both E. nebulosa and Lanice conchilega are of the same order, suggesting that differences between the populations of E. nebulosa are infraspecific.

Dinoflagellates in evolution. A molecular phylogenetic analysis of large subunit ribosomal RNA.

The sequence of the large subunit ribosomal RNA (LsuRNA) gene of the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum micans has been determined. The inferred rRNA sequence [3408 nucleotides (nt)] is presented in its most probable secondary structure based on compensatory mutations, energy, and conservation criteria. No introns have been found but a hidden break is present in the second variable domain, 690 nt from the 5' end, as judged by agarose gel electrophoresis and primer extension experiments. Prorocentrum micans LsuRNA length and G+C content are close to those of ciliates and yeast. The conserved portions of the molecule (1900 nt) have been aligned with corresponding sequences from various eukaryotes, including five protista, one metaphyta, and three metazoa. An extensive phylogenetic study was performed, comparing two phenetic methods (neighbor joining on difference matrix, and Fitch and Margoliash on Knuc values matrix) and one cladistic (parsimony). The three methods led to similar tree topologies, except for the emergence of yeast that groups with ciliates and dinoflagellates when phenetic methods are used, but emerges later in the most parsimonious tree. This discrepancy was checked by statistical analyses on reduced trees (limited to four species) inferred using parsimony and evolutionary parsimony methods. The data support the phenetic tree topologies and a close relationship between dinoflagellates, ciliates, and yeast.

Activation of MPF in fission yeast.

In fission yeast p34cdc2/cyclin is activated at the G2/M boundary by dephosphorylation of Tyr15 of the p34cdc2 subunit. Two protein phosphatases carry out this dephosphorylation event. The major activity is encoded by cdc25, which is a distantly related member of the protein tyrosine phosphatase family. A minor activity is provided by a newly identified fission yeast protein tyrosine phosphatase.

Pyp3 PTPase acts as a mitotic inducer in fission yeast.

The p34cdc2 M-phase kinase is regulated by inhibitory phosphorylation of Tyr15, largely through the actions of the p107wee1 tyrosine kinase and p80cdc25 protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTPase). In this study we demonstrate that a second PTPase, encoded by pyp3, also contributes to tyrosyl dephosphorylation of p34cdc2. Pyp3 was identified as a high copy suppressor of a cdc25- mutation. The pyp3 gene encodes a 33 kDa PTPase that is more closely related to human PTP1B and fission yeast pyp1 and pyp2 PTPases than to cdc25. Pyp3 does not share an essential overlapping function with pyp1 or pyp2. We demonstrate that disruption of pyp3 causes a mitotic delay that is greatly exacerbated in cells that are partially defective for cdc25 function and that pyp3 function is essential in cdc25-disruption wee1- strains. Pyp3 PTPase effectively dephosphorylates and activates the p34cdc2 kinase in vitro. We conclude that the pyp3 PTPase acts cooperatively with p80cdc25 to dephosphorylate Tyr15 of p34cdc2.

A molecular phylogeny of dinoflagellate protists (pyrrhophyta) inferred from the sequence of 24S rRNA divergent domains D1 and D8.

The sequence of two divergent domains (D1 and D8) from dinoflagellate 24S large subunit rRNA was determined by primer extension using total RNA as template. Nucleotide sequence alignments over 401 bases have been analyzed in order to investigate phylogenetic relationships within this highly divergent and taxonomically controversial group of protists of the division Pyrrhophyta. Data are provided confirming that dinoflagellates represent a monophyletic group. For 11 out of the 13 investigated laboratory grown species, an additional domain (D2) could not be completely sequenced by reverse transcription because of a hidden break located near its 3'-terminus. Two sets of sequence alignments were used to infer dinoflagellate phylogeny. The first [199 nucleotides (nt)] included conservative sequences flanking the D1 and D8 divergent domains. It was used to reconstruct a broad evolutionary tree for the dinoflagellates, which was rooted using Tetrahymena thermophila as the outgroup. To confirm the tree topology, and mainly the branchings leading to closely related species, a second alignment (401 nt) was considered, which included the D1 and D8 variable sequences in addition to the more conserved flanking regions. Species that showed sequence similarities with other species lower than 60% on average (Knuc values higher than 0.550) were removed from this analysis. A coherent and convincing evolutionary pattern was obtained for the dinoflagellates, also confirmed by the position of the hidden break within the D2 domain, which appears to be group specific. The reconstructed phylogeny indicates that the early emergence of Oxyrrhis marina preceded that of most Peridiniales, a large order of thecate species, whereas the unarmored Gymnodiniales appeared more recently, along with members of the Prorocentrales characterized by two thecal plates. In addition, the emergence of heterotrophic species preceded that of photosynthetic species. These results provide new perspectives on proposed evolutionary trees for the dinoflagellates based on morphology, biology, and fossil records.