Computational Prediction of the Heterodimeric and Higher-Order Structure of gpE1/gpE2 Envelope Glycoproteins Encoded by Hepatitis C Virus.

Despite the recent success of newly developed direct-acting antivirals against hepatitis C, the disease continues to be a global health threat due to the lack of diagnosis of most carriers and the high cost of treatment. The heterodimer formed by glycoproteins E1 and E2 within the hepatitis C virus (HCV) lipid envelope is a potential vaccine candidate and antiviral target. While the structure of E1/E2 has not yet been resolved, partial crystal structures of the E1 and E2 ectodomains have been determined. The unresolved parts of the structure are within the realm of what can be modeled with current computational modeling tools. Furthermore, a variety of additional experimental data is available to support computational predictions of E1/E2 structure, such as data from antibody binding studies, cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), mutational analyses, peptide binding analysis, linker-scanning mutagenesis, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies. In accordance with these rich experimental data, we have built an in silico model of the full-length E1/E2 heterodimer. Our model supports that E1/E2 assembles into a trimer, which was previously suggested from a study by Falson and coworkers (P. Falson, B. Bartosch, K. Alsaleh, B. A. Tews, A. Loquet, Y. Ciczora, L. Riva, C. Montigny, C. Montpellier, G. Duverlie, E. I. Pecheur, M. le Maire, F. L. Cosset, J. Dubuisson, and F. Penin, J. Virol. 89:10333-10346, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00991-15). Size exclusion chromatography and Western blotting data obtained by using purified recombinant E1/E2 support our hypothesis. Our model suggests that during virus assembly, the trimer of E1/E2 may be further assembled into a pentamer, with 12 pentamers comprising a single HCV virion. We anticipate that this new model will provide a useful framework for HCV envelope structure and the development of antiviral strategies.IMPORTANCE One hundred fifty million people have been estimated to be infected with hepatitis C virus, and many more are at risk for infection. A better understanding of the structure of the HCV envelope, which is responsible for attachment and fusion, could aid in the development of a vaccine and/or new treatments for this disease. We draw upon computational techniques to predict a full-length model of the E1/E2 heterodimer based on the partial crystal structures of the envelope glycoproteins E1 and E2. E1/E2 has been widely studied experimentally, and this provides valuable data, which has assisted us in our modeling. Our proposed structure is used to suggest the organization of the HCV envelope. We also present new experimental data from size exclusion chromatography that support our computational prediction of a trimeric oligomeric state of E1/E2.

Yeast translation elongation factor-1A binds vacuole-localized Rho1p to facilitate membrane integrity through F-actin remodeling.

Rho GTPases are molecular switches that modulate a variety of cellular processes, most notably those involving actin dynamics. We have previously shown that yeast vacuolar membrane fusion requires re-organization of actin filaments mediated by two Rho GTPases, Rho1p and Cdc42p. Cdc42p initiates actin polymerization to facilitate membrane tethering; Rho1p has a role in the late stages of vacuolar fusion, but its mode of action is unknown. Here, we identified eEF1A as a vacuolar Rho1p-interacting protein. eEF1A (encoded by the TEF1 and TEF2 genes in yeast) is an aminoacyl-tRNA transferase needed during protein translation. eEF1A also has a second function that is independent of translation; it binds and organizes actin filaments into ordered cable structures. Here, we report that eEF1A interacts with Rho1p via a C-terminal subdomain. This interaction occurs predominantly when both proteins are in the GDP-bound state. Therefore, eEF1A is an atypical downstream effector of Rho1p. eEF1A does not promote vacuolar fusion; however, overexpression of the Rho1p-interacting subdomain affects vacuolar morphology. Vacuoles were destabilized and prone to leakage when treated with the eEF1A inhibitor narciclasine. We propose a model whereby eEF1A binds to Rho1p-GDP on the vacuolar membrane; it is released upon Rho1p activation and then bundles actin filaments to stabilize fused vacuoles. Therefore, the Rho1p-eEF1A complex acts to spatially localize a pool of eEF1A to vacuoles where it can readily organize F-actin.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 regulates degranulation in human eosinophils.

Degranulation from eosinophils in response to secretagogue stimulation is a regulated process that involves exocytosis of granule proteins through specific signalling pathways. One potential pathway is dependent on cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) and its effector molecules, p35 and p39, which play a central role in neuronal cell exocytosis by phosphorylating Munc18, a regulator of SNARE binding. Emerging evidence suggests a role for Cdk5 in exocytosis in immune cells, although its role in eosinophils is not known. We sought to examine the expression of Cdk5 and its activators in human eosinophils, and to assess the role of Cdk5 in eosinophil degranulation. We used freshly isolated human eosinophils and analysed the expression of Cdk5, p35, p39 and Munc18c by Western blot, RT-PCR, flow cytometry and immunoprecipitation. Cdk5 kinase activity was determined following eosinophil activation. Cdk5 inhibitors were used (roscovitine, AT7519 and small interfering RNA) to determine its role in eosinophil peroxidase (EPX) secretion. Cdk5 was expressed in association with Munc18c, p35 and p39, and phosphorylated following human eosinophil activation with eotaxin/CCL11, platelet-activating factor, and secretory IgA-Sepharose. Cdk5 inhibitors (roscovitine, AT7519) reduced EPX release when cells were stimulated by PMA or secretory IgA. In assays using small interfering RNA knock-down of Cdk5 expression in human eosinophils, we observed inhibition of EPX release. Our findings suggest that in activated eosinophils, Cdk5 is phosphorylated and binds to Munc18c, resulting in Munc18c release from syntaxin-4, allowing SNARE binding and vesicle fusion, with subsequent eosinophil degranulation. Our work identifies a novel role for Cdk5 in eosinophil mediator release by agonist-induced degranulation.

Preclinical cardiovascular safety assessment of pharmacology-toxicology relationship for a set of novel kinase inhibitors.

Cardiovascular toxicity is one of the more common causes of attrition in preclinical and clinical drug development. Preclinical cardiovascular safety assessment involves numerous in vitro and in vivo endpoints which are being continually reviewed and improved to lower the incidence of cardiovascular toxicity that manifests only after the initiation of clinical trials. An example of notable preclinical toxicity is necrosis in the papillary muscle of the left ventricle in dogs that is induced by exaggerated pharmacological effects of vasodilators or positive inotropic/vasodilating off-target drug effects. Two distinct, small-molecule inhibitors that target an intracellular kinase, Compound A and Compound B, were profiled in 2-week dose-range finding and 4-week toxicity studies. Serum cardiac troponin (cTnI) was evaluated after a single dose and after 2-week and 4-week repeat dose studies with each kinase inhibitor. Acute effects on hemodynamic (heart rate, blood pressures, left ventricular contractility) and electrocardiographic (QTcV, PR, QRS intervals) endpoints by each inhibitor were assessed in an anesthetized dog cardiovascular model. Cardiovascular degeneration/necrosis with and without fibrosis was observed in dogs and correlated to increases in serum cTnI in repeat-dose toxicity studies. At the same doses used in toxicologic assessments, both kinase inhibitors produced sustained increases in heart rate, left ventricular contractility, and cardiac output, and decreases in mean arterial pressure. Cardiac pathology findings associated with these 2 kinase inhibitors were accompanied not only by cardiac troponin elevations but also associated with hemodynamic changes, highlighting the importance of the link of the physiologic-toxicologic interplay in cardiovascular safety assessment.

Functional analysis of RhoGDI inhibitory activity on vacuole membrane fusion.

RhoGDIs (Rho GDP-dissociation inhibitors) are the natural inhibitors of Rho GTPases. They interfere with Rho protein function by either blocking upstream activation or association with downstream signalling molecules. RhoGDIs can also extract membrane-bound Rho GTPases to form soluble cytosolic complexes. We have shown previously that purified yeast RhoGDI Rdi1p, can inhibit vacuole membrane fusion in vitro. In the present paper we functionally dissect Rdi1p to discover its mode of regulating membrane fusion. Overexpression of Rdi1p in vivo profoundly affected cell morphology including increased actin patches in mother cells indicative of polarity defects, delayed ALP (alkaline phosphatase) sorting and the presence of highly fragmented vacuoles indicative of membrane fusion defects. These defects were not caused by the loss of typical transport and fusion proteins, but rather were linked to the reduction of membrane localization and activation of Cdc42p and Rho1p. Subcellular fractionation showed that Rdi1p is predominantly a cytosolic monomer, free of bound Rho GTPases. Overexpression of endogenous Rdi1p, or the addition of exogenous Rdi1p, generated stable cytosolic complexes. Rdi1p structure-function analysis showed that membrane association via the C-terminal ß-sheet domain was required for the functional inhibition of membrane fusion. Furthermore, Rdi1p inhibited membrane fusion through the binding of Rho GTPases independent from its extraction activity.

Cdc42p is activated during vacuole membrane fusion in a sterol-dependent subreaction of priming.

Cdc42p is a Rho GTPase that initiates signaling cascades at spatially defined intracellular sites for many cellular functions. We have previously shown that Cdc42p is localized to the yeast vacuole where it initiates actin polymerization during membrane fusion. Here we examine the activation cycle of Cdc42p during vacuole membrane fusion. Expression of either GTP- or GDP-locked Cdc42p mutants caused several morphological defects including enlarged cells and fragmented vacuoles. Stimulation of multiple rounds of fusion enhanced vacuole fragmentation, suggesting that cycles of Cdc42p activation, involving rounds of GTP binding and hydrolysis, are required to propagate Cdc42p signaling. We developed an assay to directly examine Cdc42p activation based on affinity to a probe derived from the p21-activated kinase effector, Ste20p. Cdc42p was rapidly activated during vacuole membrane fusion, which kinetically coincided with priming subreaction. During priming, Sec18p ATPase activity dissociates SNARE complexes and releases Sec17p, however, priming inhibitors such as Sec17p and Sec18p ligands did not block Cdc42p activation. Therefore, Cdc42p activation seems to be a parallel subreaction of priming, distinct from Sec18p activity. Specific mutants in the ergosterol synthesis pathway block both Sec17p release and Cdc42p activation. Taken together, our results define a novel sterol-dependent subreaction of vacuole priming that activates cycles of Cdc42p activity to facilitate membrane fusion.

Cdc42p and Rho1p are sequentially activated and mechanistically linked to vacuole membrane fusion.

Small monomeric GTPases act as molecular switches, regulating many biological functions via activation of membrane localized signaling cascades. Activation of their switch function is controlled by GTP binding and hydrolysis. Two Rho GTPases, Cdc42p and Rho1p, are localized to the yeast vacuole where they regulate membrane fusion. Here, we define a method to directly examine vacuole membrane Cdc42p and Rho1p activation based on their affinity to probes derived from effectors. Cdc42p and Rho1p showed unique temporal activation which aligned with distinct subreactions of in vitro vacuole fusion. Cdc42p was rapidly activated in an ATP-independent manner while Rho1p activation was kinetically slower and required ATP. Inhibitors that are known to block vacuole membrane fusion were examined for their effect on Cdc42p and Rho1p activation. Rdi1p, which inhibits the dissociation of GDP from Rho proteins, blocked both Cdc42p and Rho1p activation. Ligands of PI(4,5)P(2) specifically inhibited Rho1p activation while pre-incubation with U73122, which targets Plc1p function, increased Rho1p activation. These results define unique activation mechanisms for Cdc42p and Rho1p, which may be linked to the vacuole membrane fusion mechanism.

Genetic interaction network of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae type 1 phosphatase Glc7.

BACKGROUND: Protein kinases and phosphatases regulate protein phosphorylation, a critical means of modulating protein function, stability and localization. The identification of functional networks for protein phosphatases has been slow due to their redundant nature and the lack of large-scale analyses. We hypothesized that a genome-scale analysis of genetic interactions using the Synthetic Genetic Array could reveal protein phosphatase functional networks. We apply this approach to the conserved type 1 protein phosphatase Glc7, which regulates numerous cellular processes in budding yeast. RESULTS: We created a novel glc7 catalytic mutant (glc7-E101Q). Phenotypic analysis indicates that this novel allele exhibits slow growth and defects in glucose metabolism but normal cell cycle progression and chromosome segregation. This suggests that glc7-E101Q is a hypomorphic glc7 mutant. Synthetic Genetic Array analysis of glc7-E101Q revealed a broad network of 245 synthetic sick/lethal interactions reflecting that many processes are required when Glc7 function is compromised such as histone modification, chromosome segregation and cytokinesis, nutrient sensing and DNA damage. In addition, mitochondrial activity and inheritance and lipid metabolism were identified as new processes involved in buffering Glc7 function. An interaction network among 95 genes genetically interacting with GLC7 was constructed by integration of genetic and physical interaction data. The obtained network has a modular architecture, and the interconnection among the modules reflects the cooperation of the processes buffering Glc7 function. CONCLUSION: We found 245 genes required for the normal growth of the glc7-E101Q mutant. Functional grouping of these genes and analysis of their physical and genetic interaction patterns bring new information on Glc7-regulated processes.

Vesicle-associated membrane protein 7 (VAMP-7) is essential for target cell killing in a natural killer cell line.

Natural killer cells recognize and induce apoptosis in foreign, transformed or virus-infected cells through the release of perforin and granzymes from secretory lysosomes. Clinically, NK-cell mediated killing is a major limitation to successful allo- and xenotransplantation. The molecular mechanisms that regulate the fusion of granzyme B-containing secretory lysosomes to the plasma membrane in activated NK cells, prior to target cell killing, are not fully understood. Using the NK cell line YT-Indy as a model, we have investigated the expression of SNAP REceptors (SNAREs), both target (t-) and vesicular (v-) SNAREs, and their function in granzyme B-mediated target cell killing. Our data showed that YT-Indy cells express VAMP-7 and SNAP-23, but not VAMP-2. VAMP-7 was associated with granzyme B-containing lysosomal granules. Using VAMP-7 small interfering RNA (siRNA), we successfully knocked down the expression of VAMP-7 protein in YT-Indy to less than 10% of untreated cells in 24h. VAMP7-deficient YT-Indy cells activated via co-culture with Jurkat cells released <1ng/mL of granzyme B, compared to 1.5-2.5 microg/mL from controls. Using Jurkat cells as targets, we showed a 7-fold reduction in NK cell-mediated killing by VAMP-7 deficient YT-Indy cells. Our results show that VAMP-7 is a crucial component of granzyme B release and target cell killing in the NK cell line YT-Indy. Thus, targeting VAMP-7 expression specifically with siRNA, following transplantation, may be a viable strategy for preventing NK cell-mediated transplant rejection, in vivo.

"Carry-on" dermal baggage: a nodule from a dog. Pyogranulomatous inflammation with intralesional fungal agents.

A 2-year-old intact female Australian Cattle Dog presented with a 1-cm diameter nonexudative dermal nodule on the medial aspect of the right thigh. Fine-needle aspiration revealed pyogranulomatous inflammation and many ovoid, 2-4 microm diameter, thin-capsulated, basophilic bodies that appeared to be fungal spores or yeast. Results of CBC, serum chemistry panel, lymph node palpation, and radiographs were unremarkable. Excisional biopsy and histopathology revealed pyogranulomatous folliculitis, furunculosis, and perifolliculitis. Rare fungal hyphae and spore forms were intimately associated with, and occasionally within, hair shafts. A morphologic diagnosis of dermatophytosis was made and Microsporum canis infection was confirmed by fungal culture. M canis is a common infectious agent found within the follicles and superficial keratin layers of canine skin. The kerion-type clinical presentation observed in the dog of this case is uncommonly observed with M canis. Additionally, the cytologic finding of multiple arthroconidia without hyphae is unusual. In the absence of hyphae, M canis arthroconidia may be confused with other fungal yeast bodies; therefore close scrutiny of a cytologic sample for arthroconidia associated with keratin, hair fragments, or hyphal structures is recommended.

Structure and Function of the Hepatitis C Virus Envelope Glycoproteins E1 and E2: Antiviral and Vaccine Targets.

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope glycoproteins E1 and E2 are critical in viral attachment and cell fusion, and studies of these proteins may provide valuable insights into their potential uses in vaccines and antiviral strategies. Progress has included elucidating the crystal structures of portions of their ectodomains, as well as many other studies of hypervariable regions, stem regions, glycosylation sites, and the participation of E1/E2 in viral fusion with the endosomal membrane. The available structural data have shed light on the binding sites of cross-neutralizing antibodies. A large amount of information has been discovered concerning heterodimerization, including the roles of transmembrane domains, disulfide bonding, and heptad repeat regions. The possible organization of higher order oligomers within the HCV virion has also been evaluated on the basis of experimental data. In this review, E1/E2 structure and function is discussed, and some important issues requiring further study are highlighted.

Factors affecting urine reagent strip blood results in dogs and nonhuman primates and interpretation of urinalysis in preclinical toxicology studies: a Multi-Institution Contract Research Organization and BioPharmaceutical Company Perspective.

BACKGROUND: Urinalysis data in preclinical toxicology studies can be influenced by preanalytic and analytic factors which have the potential to confound interpretation. There is a paucity of information regarding positive reagent strip urinary blood reactions in healthy nonhuman primates (NHP) and Beagle dogs used in preclinical toxicology studies. OBJECTIVES: The objectives were (1) to establish historical control data for reagent strip urinary blood reactions in healthy NHP and Beagle dogs, (2) to determine the incidence of positive urinary blood reactions during predose and dosing phases, and (3) to determine if collection practice was a relevant parameter. METHODS: Historical control data from 2 institutions in the biopharmaceutical industry were retrospectively analyzed for reagent strip urinary blood reactions in healthy NHP and Beagles. The incidence of positive results between the 2 institutions with different urine collection practices and between males and females was compared. RESULTS: The incidence of positive urinary blood reactions in NHP was comparable between institutions (≤ 14% in males; ≤ 33% in females), while the incidence of positive urinary blood reactions in Beagles was more variable (≤ 77% in males; ≤ 69% in females), and higher in females during the dosing phase. CONCLUSIONS: Positive urinary blood results that could potentially be misinterpreted as toxicologically relevant were identified in healthy NHP and Beagles during predose and dosing phases. Different incidences of positive results between the 2 institutions were likely related to collection practices. Strategies to reduce feces and food contamination of collected urine samples should help minimize false-positive urinary blood reactions.

Analysis of Rho GTPase activation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Rho proteins act as molecular switches to control multiple cellular processes. The switch mechanism involves cycling between active and inactive states based on GTP loading and hydrolysis. Assays that quantitatively analyze the GTP loading of Rho proteins have become important molecular tools to decipher upstream signals and mechanisms that regulate activation and de-activation. These assays make use of Rho activation probes constructed from Rho-binding domains of downstream effectors. The utility of these assays comes from effector domains that show selective high affinity interactions with specific subsets of GTP-bound activated GTPases. Here, we describe assays used to analyze yeast Rho GTPase activation.

Batf coordinates multiple aspects of B and T cell function required for normal antibody responses.

Batf belongs to the activator protein 1 superfamily of basic leucine zipper transcription factors that includes Fos, Jun, and Atf proteins. Batf is expressed in mouse T and B lymphocytes, although the importance of Batf to the function of these lineages has not been fully investigated. We generated mice (Batf(DeltaZ/DeltaZ)) in which Batf protein is not produced. Batf(DeltaZ/DeltaZ) mice contain normal numbers of B cells but show reduced numbers of peripheral CD4(+) T cells. Analysis of CD4(+) T helper (Th) cell subsets in Batf(DeltaZ/DeltaZ) mice demonstrated that Batf is required for the development of functional Th type 17 (Th17), Th2, and follicular Th (Tfh) cells. In response to antigen immunization, germinal centers were absent in Batf(DeltaZ/DeltaZ) mice and the maturation of Ig-secreting B cells was impaired. Although adoptive transfer experiments confirmed that this B cell phenotype can be driven by defects in the Batf(DeltaZ/DeltaZ) CD4(+) T cell compartment, stimulation of Batf(DeltaZ/DeltaZ) B cells in vitro, or by a T cell-independent antigen in vivo, resulted in proliferation but not class-switch recombination. We conclude that loss of Batf disrupts multiple components of the lymphocyte communication network that are required for a robust immune response.

Myosin-driven peroxisome partitioning in S. cerevisiae.

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the class V myosin motor Myo2p propels the movement of most organelles. We recently identified Inp2p as the peroxisome-specific receptor for Myo2p. In this study, we delineate the region of Myo2p devoted to binding peroxisomes. Using mutants of Myo2p specifically impaired in peroxisome binding, we dissect cell cycle-dependent and peroxisome partitioning-dependent mechanisms of Inp2p regulation. We find that although total Inp2p levels oscillate with the cell cycle, Inp2p levels on individual peroxisomes are controlled by peroxisome inheritance, as Inp2p aberrantly accumulates and decorates all peroxisomes in mother cells when peroxisome partitioning is abolished. We also find that Inp2p is a phosphoprotein whose level of phosphorylation is coupled to the cell cycle irrespective of peroxisome positioning in the cell. Our findings demonstrate that both organelle positioning and cell cycle progression control the levels of organelle-specific receptors for molecular motors to ultimately achieve an equidistribution of compartments between mother and daughter cells.

Primary granule exocytosis in human neutrophils is regulated by Rac-dependent actin remodeling.

The actin cytoskeleton regulates exocytosis in all secretory cells. In neutrophils, Rac2 GTPase has been shown to control primary (azurophilic) granule exocytosis. In this report, we propose that Rac2 is required for actin cytoskeletal remodeling to promote primary granule exocytosis. Treatment of neutrophils with low doses (< or = 10 microM) of the actin-depolymerizing drugs latrunculin B (Lat B) or cytochalasin B (CB) enhanced both formyl peptide receptor- and Ca(2+) ionophore-stimulated exocytosis. Higher concentrations of CB or Lat B, or stabilization of F-actin with jasplakinolide (JP), inhibited primary granule exocytosis measured as myeloperoxidase release but did not affect secondary granule exocytosis determined by lactoferrin release. These results suggest an obligatory role for F-actin disassembly before primary granule exocytosis. However, lysates from secretagogue-stimulated neutrophils showed enhanced actin polymerization activity in vitro. Microscopic analysis showed that resting neutrophils contain significant cortical F-actin, which was redistributed to sites of primary granule translocation when stimulated. Exocytosis and actin remodeling was highly polarized when cells were primed with CB; however, polarization was reduced by Lat B preincubation, and both polarization and exocytosis were blocked when F-actin was stabilized with JP. Treatment of cells with the small molecule Rac inhibitor NSC23766 also inhibited actin remodeling and primary granule exocytosis induced by Lat B/fMLF or CB/fMLF, but not by Ca(2+) ionophore. Therefore, we propose a role for F-actin depolymerization at the cell cortex coupled with Rac-dependent F-actin polymerization in the cell cytoplasm to promote primary granule exocytosis.

Regulation of the actin cytoskeleton by PIP2 in cytokinesis.

Cytokinesis is a sequential process that occurs in three phases: assembly of the cytokinetic apparatus, furrow progression and fission (abscission) of the newly formed daughter cells. The ingression of the cleavage furrow is dependent on the constriction of an equatorial actomyosin ring in many cell types. Recent studies have demonstrated that this structure is highly dynamic and undergoes active polymerization and depolymerization throughout the furrowing process. Despite much progress in the identification of contractile ring components, little is known regarding the mechanism of its assembly and structural rearrangements. PIP2 (phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate) is a critical regulator of actin dynamics and plays an essential role in cell motility and adhesion. Recent studies have indicated that an elevation of PIP2 at the cleavage furrow is a critical event for furrow stability. In this review we discuss the role of PIP2-mediated signalling in the structural maintenance of the contractile ring and furrow progression. In addition, we address the role of other phosphoinositides, PI(4)P (phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate) and PIP3 (phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate) in these processes.

Expression of eosinophil target SNAREs as potential cognate receptors for vesicle-associated membrane protein-2 in exocytosis.

BACKGROUND: Exocytosis of eosinophil granule-derived mediators is thought to be an important effector response contributing to allergic inflammation. Secretion from many cell types has been shown to be dependent on the formation of a docking complex composed of soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein (SNAP) receptors (SNAREs) located on the vesicle (v-SNAREs) and the target membrane (t-SNAREs). The SNARE isoforms VAMP-2, SNAP-23, and syntaxin-4 have been described in secretory processes in myeloid cells. Previously, we have demonstrated that the v-SNARE VAMP-2 is a candidate v-SNARE involved in eosinophil exocytosis and is localized to a pool of RANTES-positive vesicles that translocate to the cell periphery after IFN-gamma-induced degranulation. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether eosinophils express the t-SNARE isoforms SNAP-23 and syntaxin-4 as potential binding targets for VAMP-2 during exocytosis. METHODS: Human peripheral blood eosinophils (>97%) from atopic subjects were subjected to RT-PCR and sequence analysis by using specific primers for SNAP-23 and syntaxin-4. Protein expression and localization was determined by means of Western blot analysis of eosinophil subcellular fractions and confirmed with confocal laser scanning microscopy. RESULTS: Nucleotide sequences obtained from PCR products exhibited nearly identical (>95%) homology with reported sequences for human SNAP-23 and syntaxin-4. Both SNAP-23 and syntaxin-4 were present in plasma membranes, with some staining in endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi membranes. Negligible expression was detected in crystalloid and small secretory granules. CONCLUSIONS: The plasma membrane-associated t-SNAREs SNAP-23 and syntaxin-4 are expressed in human eosinophils and are likely candidates for association with VAMP-2 during docking, which is followed by exocytosis. These findings support a role for SNARE molecules in eosinophil mediator release.

Understanding exocytosis in immune and inflammatory cells: the molecular basis of mediator secretion.

Inflammatory cells secrete proteins from intracellular vesicles or granules by a process referred to either as exocytosis or as degranulation, which is common to all cell types. Exocytosis is a precise term that describes the process of granule or vesicular fusion with the plasma membrane and is accompanied by release of granule/vesicle contents to the cell exterior. This process is of particular significance with respect to tissue damage and remodeling in inflammatory diseases, inasmuch as these changes are the consequences of inflammatory cell activation and mediator elaboration. Despite its unifying importance to all inflammatory cell types, little is known about the precise molecular and intracellular mechanisms that regulate mobilization of secretory granules/vesicles and, ultimately, secretion of mediators from immune and inflammatory cells. This article reviews the mechanisms and molecules currently implicated at distal stages of exocytosis from eosinophils, neutrophils, mast cells, platelets, and macrophages. Conserved molecules identified among inflammatory cell types indicate a convergence of pathways leading to mediator secretion. The identification of essential molecules in the cascade of events leading to exocytosis is critical in the search for novel therapeutic targets aimed at modulating mediator secretion from these cell types.