Glucose metabolism links astroglial mitochondria to cannabinoid effects.

Astrocytes take up glucose from the bloodstream to provide energy to the brain, thereby allowing neuronal activity and behavioural responses1-5. By contrast, astrocytes are under neuronal control through specific neurotransmitter receptors5-7. However, whether the activation of astroglial receptors can directly regulate cellular glucose metabolism to eventually modulate behavioural responses is unclear. Here we show that activation of mouse astroglial type-1 cannabinoid receptors associated with mitochondrial membranes (mtCB1) hampers the metabolism of glucose and the production of lactate in the brain, resulting in altered neuronal functions and, in turn, impaired behavioural responses in social interaction assays. Specifically, activation of astroglial mtCB1 receptors reduces the phosphorylation of the mitochondrial complex I subunit NDUFS4, which decreases the stability and activity of complex I. This leads to a reduction in the generation of reactive oxygen species by astrocytes and affects the glycolytic production of lactate through the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 pathway, eventually resulting in neuronal redox stress and impairment of behavioural responses in social interaction assays. Genetic and pharmacological correction of each of these effects abolishes the effect of cannabinoid treatment on the observed behaviour. These findings suggest that mtCB1 receptor signalling can directly regulate astroglial glucose metabolism to fine-tune neuronal activity and behaviour in mice.

Complex I assembly into supercomplexes determines differential mitochondrial ROS production in neurons and astrocytes.

Neurons depend on oxidative phosphorylation for energy generation, whereas astrocytes do not, a distinctive feature that is essential for neurotransmission and neuronal survival. However, any link between these metabolic differences and the structural organization of the mitochondrial respiratory chain is unknown. Here, we investigated this issue and found that, in neurons, mitochondrial complex I is predominantly assembled into supercomplexes, whereas in astrocytes the abundance of free complex I is higher. The presence of free complex I in astrocytes correlates with the severalfold higher reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by astrocytes compared with neurons. Using a complexomics approach, we found that the complex I subunit NDUFS1 was more abundant in neurons than in astrocytes. Interestingly, NDUFS1 knockdown in neurons decreased the association of complex I into supercomplexes, leading to impaired oxygen consumption and increased mitochondrial ROS. Conversely, overexpression of NDUFS1 in astrocytes promoted complex I incorporation into supercomplexes, decreasing ROS. Thus, complex I assembly into supercomplexes regulates ROS production and may contribute to the bioenergetic differences between neurons and astrocytes.

Mitochondrial Complex I Activity is Conditioned by Supercomplex I-III2-IV Assembly in Brain Cells: Relevance for Parkinson's Disease.

The assembly of complex I (CI) with complexes III (CIII) and IV (CIV) of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) to configure I-III- or I-III-IV-containing supercomplexes (SCs) regulates mitochondrial energy efficiency and reactive oxygen species (mROS) production. However, whether the occurrence of SCs impacts on CI specific activity remains unknown to our knowledge. To investigate this issue, here we determined CI activity in primary neurons and astrocytes, cultured under identical antioxidants-free medium, from two mouse strains (C57Bl/6 and CBA) and Wistar rat, i.e. three rodent species with or without the ability to assemble CIV into SCs. We found that CI activity was 6- or 1.8-fold higher in astrocytes than in neurons, respectively, from rat or CBA mouse, which can form I-III2-IV SC; however, CI activity was similar in the cells from C57Bl/6 mouse, which does not form I-III2-IV SC. Interestingly, CII-III activity, which was comparable in neurons and astrocytes from mice, was about 50% lower in astrocytes when compared with neurons from rat, a difference that was abolished by antioxidants- or serum-containing media. CIV and citrate synthase activities were similar under all conditions studied. Interestingly, in rat astrocytes, CI abundance in I-III2-IV SC was negligible when compared with its abundance in I-III-containing SCs. Thus, CIV-containing SCs formation may determine CI specific activity in astrocytes, which is important to understand the mechanism for CI deficiency observed in Parkinson's disease.

DJ1 represses glycolysis and cell proliferation by transcriptionally up-regulating Pink1.

DnaJ-1 or hsp40/hdj-1 (DJ1) is a multi-functional protein whose mutations cause autosomal recessive early-onset Parkinson's disease (PD). DJ1 loss of function disrupts mitochondrial function, but the signalling pathway, whereby it interferes with energy metabolism, is unknown. In the present study, we found that mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) obtained from DJ1-null (dj1-/-) mice showed higher glycolytic rate than those from wild-type (WT) DJ1 (dj1+/+). This effect could be counteracted by the expression of the full-length cDNA encoding the WT DJ1, but not its DJ1-L166P mutant form associated with PD. Loss of DJ1 increased hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (Hif1α) protein abundance and cell proliferation. To understand the molecular mechanism responsible for these effects, we focused on phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN)-induced protein kinase-1 (Pink1), a PD-associated protein whose loss was recently reported to up-regulate glucose metabolism and to sustain cell proliferation [Requejo-Aguilar et al. (2014) Nat. Commun. 5, 4514]. Noticeably, we found that the alterations in glycolysis, Hif1α and proliferation of DJ1-deficient cells were abrogated by the expression of Pink1. Moreover, we found that loss of DJ1 decreased pink1 mRNA and Pink1 protein levels and that DJ1, by binding with Foxo3a (forkhead box O3a) transcription factor, directly interacted with the pink1 promoter stimulating its transcriptional activity. These results indicate that DJ1 regulates cell metabolism and proliferation through Pink1.

Fatty acid oxidation organizes mitochondrial supercomplexes to sustain astrocytic ROS and cognition.

Having direct access to brain vasculature, astrocytes can take up available blood nutrients and metabolize them to fulfil their own energy needs and deliver metabolic intermediates to local synapses1,2. These glial cells should be, therefore, metabolically adaptable to swap different substrates. However, in vitro and in vivo studies consistently show that astrocytes are primarily glycolytic3-7, suggesting glucose is their main metabolic precursor. Notably, transcriptomic data8,9 and in vitro10 studies reveal that mouse astrocytes are capable of mitochondrially oxidizing fatty acids and that they can detoxify excess neuronal-derived fatty acids in disease models11,12. Still, the factual metabolic advantage of fatty acid use by astrocytes and its physiological impact on higher-order cerebral functions remain unknown. Here, we show that knockout of carnitine-palmitoyl transferase-1A (CPT1A)-a key enzyme of mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation-in adult mouse astrocytes causes cognitive impairment. Mechanistically, decreased fatty acid oxidation rewired astrocytic pyruvate metabolism to facilitate electron flux through a super-assembled mitochondrial respiratory chain, resulting in attenuation of reactive oxygen species formation. Thus, astrocytes naturally metabolize fatty acids to preserve the mitochondrial respiratory chain in an energetically inefficient disassembled conformation that secures signalling reactive oxygen species and sustains cognitive performance.

Aberrant upregulation of the glycolytic enzyme PFKFB3 in CLN7 neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis.

CLN7 neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis is an inherited lysosomal storage neurodegenerative disease highly prevalent in children. CLN7/MFSD8 gene encodes a lysosomal membrane glycoprotein, but the biochemical processes affected by CLN7-loss of function are unexplored thus preventing development of potential treatments. Here, we found, in the Cln7∆ex2 mouse model of CLN7 disease, that failure in autophagy causes accumulation of structurally and bioenergetically impaired neuronal mitochondria. In vivo genetic approach reveals elevated mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS) in Cln7∆ex2 neurons that mediates glycolytic enzyme PFKFB3 activation and contributes to CLN7 pathogenesis. Mechanistically, mROS sustains a signaling cascade leading to protein stabilization of PFKFB3, normally unstable in healthy neurons. Administration of the highly selective PFKFB3 inhibitor AZ67 in Cln7∆ex2 mouse brain in vivo and in CLN7 patients-derived cells rectifies key disease hallmarks. Thus, aberrant upregulation of the glycolytic enzyme PFKFB3 in neurons may contribute to CLN7 pathogenesis and targeting PFKFB3 could alleviate this and other lysosomal storage diseases.

Vascular Senescence: A Potential Bridge Between Physiological Aging and Neurogenic Decline.

The adult mammalian brain contains distinct neurogenic niches harboring populations of neural stem cells (NSCs) with the capacity to sustain the generation of specific subtypes of neurons during the lifetime. However, their ability to produce new progeny declines with age. The microenvironment of these specialized niches provides multiple cellular and molecular signals that condition NSC behavior and potential. Among the different niche components, vasculature has gained increasing interest over the years due to its undeniable role in NSC regulation and its therapeutic potential for neurogenesis enhancement. NSCs are uniquely positioned to receive both locally secreted factors and adhesion-mediated signals derived from vascular elements. Furthermore, studies of parabiosis indicate that NSCs are also exposed to blood-borne factors, sensing and responding to the systemic circulation. Both structural and functional alterations occur in vasculature with age at the cellular level that can affect the proper extrinsic regulation of NSCs. Additionally, blood exchange experiments in heterochronic parabionts have revealed that age-associated changes in blood composition also contribute to adult neurogenesis impairment in the elderly. Although the mechanisms of vascular- or blood-derived signaling in aging are still not fully understood, a general feature of organismal aging is the accumulation of senescent cells, which act as sources of inflammatory and other detrimental signals that can negatively impact on neighboring cells. This review focuses on the interactions between vascular senescence, circulating pro-senescence factors and the decrease in NSC potential during aging. Understanding the mechanisms of NSC dynamics in the aging brain could lead to new therapeutic approaches, potentially include senolysis, to target age-dependent brain decline.

Abrogating mitochondrial ROS in neurons or astrocytes reveals cell-specific impact on mouse behaviour.

Cells naturally produce mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS), but the in vivo pathophysiological significance has long remained controversial. Within the brain, astrocyte-derived mROS physiologically regulate behaviour and are produced at one order of magnitude faster than in neurons. However, whether neuronal mROS abundance differentially impacts on behaviour is unknown. To address this, we engineered genetically modified mice to down modulate mROS levels in neurons in vivo. Whilst no alterations in motor coordination were observed by down modulating mROS in neurons under healthy conditions, it prevented the motor discoordination caused by the pro-oxidant neurotoxin, 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP). In contrast, abrogation of mROS in astrocytes showed no beneficial effect against the 3-NP insult. These data indicate that the impact of modifying mROS production on mouse behaviour critically depends on the specific cell-type where they are generated.

Repurposing of tamoxifen ameliorates CLN3 and CLN7 disease phenotype.

Batten diseases (BDs) are a group of lysosomal storage disorders characterized by seizure, visual loss, and cognitive and motor deterioration. We discovered increased levels of globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) in cellular and murine models of CLN3 and CLN7 diseases and used fluorescent-conjugated bacterial toxins to label Gb3 to develop a cell-based high content imaging (HCI) screening assay for the repurposing of FDA-approved compounds able to reduce this accumulation within BD cells. We found that tamoxifen reduced the lysosomal accumulation of Gb3 in CLN3 and CLN7 cell models, including neuronal progenitor cells (NPCs) from CLN7 patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC). Here, tamoxifen exerts its action through a mechanism that involves activation of the transcription factor EB (TFEB), a master gene of lysosomal function and autophagy. In vivo administration of tamoxifen to the CLN7Δex2 mouse model reduced the accumulation of Gb3 and SCMAS, decreased neuroinflammation, and improved motor coordination. These data strongly suggest that tamoxifen may be a suitable drug to treat some types of Batten disease.

Astrocytic mitochondrial ROS modulate brain metabolism and mouse behaviour.

To satisfy its high energetic demand1, the brain depends on the metabolic cooperation of various cell types2-4. For example, astrocytic-derived lactate sustains memory consolidation5 by serving both as an oxidizable energetic substrate for neurons6 and as a signalling molecule7,8. Astrocytes and neurons also differ in the regulation of glycolytic enzymes9 and in the organization of their mitochondrial respiratory chain10. Unlike neurons, astrocytes rely on glycolysis for energy generation9 and, as a consequence, have a loosely assembled mitochondrial respiratory chain that is associated with a higher generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS)10. However, whether this abundant natural source of mitochondrial ROS in astrocytes fulfils a specific physiological role is unknown. Here we show that astrocytic mitochondrial ROS are physiological regulators of brain metabolism and neuronal function. We generated mice that inducibly overexpress mitochondrial-tagged catalase in astrocytes and show that this overexpression decreases mitochondrial ROS production in these cells during adulthood. Transcriptomic, metabolomic, biochemical, immunohistochemical and behavioural analysis of these mice revealed alterations in brain redox, carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid metabolic pathways associated with altered neuronal function and mouse behaviour. We found that astrocytic mitochondrial ROS regulate glucose utilization via the pentose-phosphate pathway and glutathione metabolism, which modulates the redox status and potentially the survival of neurons. Our data provide further molecular insight into the metabolic cooperation between astrocytes and neurons and demonstrate that mitochondrial ROS are important regulators of organismal physiology in vivo.

Essentiality of fatty acid synthase in the 2D to anchorage-independent growth transition in transforming cells.

Upregulation of fatty acid synthase (FASN) is a common event in cancer, although its mechanistic and potential therapeutic roles are not completely understood. In this study, we establish a key role of FASN during transformation. FASN is required for eliciting the anaplerotic shift of the Krebs cycle observed in cancer cells. However, its main role is to consume acetyl-CoA, which unlocks isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH)-dependent reductive carboxylation, producing the reductive power necessary to quench reactive oxygen species (ROS) originated during the switch from two-dimensional (2D) to three-dimensional (3D) growth (a necessary hallmark of cancer). Upregulation of FASN elicits the 2D-to-3D switch; however, FASN's synthetic product palmitate is dispensable for this process since cells satisfy their fatty acid requirements from the media. In vivo, genetic deletion or pharmacologic inhibition of FASN before oncogenic activation prevents tumor development and invasive growth. These results render FASN as a potential target for cancer prevention studies.

Mitochondrial respiratory chain disorganization in Parkinson's disease-relevant PINK1 and DJ1 mutants.

Brain mitochondrial complex I (CI) damage is associated with the loss of the dopaminergic neurons of the Substantia Nigra in Parkinson's Disease (PD) patients. However, whether CI inhibition is associated with any alteration of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) organization in PD patients is unknown. To address this issue, here we analyzed the MRC by blue native gel electrophoresis (BNGE) followed by western blotting, in mitochondria purified from fibroblasts of patients harboring PD-relevant Pink1 mutations. We found a decrease in free CI, and in free versus supercomplexes (SCs)-assembled CI in PD; however, free complex III (CIII) was only modestly affected, whereas its free versus SCs-assembled forms decreased. Interestingly, complex IV (CIV) was considerably lost in the PD samples. These results were largely confirmed in mitochondria isolated from cultured neurons from Pink1-/- mice, and in cultured neurons and forebrain samples from the PD-related Dj1-/- mice. Thus, besides CI damage, the MRC undergoes a profound structural remodeling in PD likely responsible for the energetic inefficiency and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS) over-production observed in this disease.

PINK1 deficiency sustains cell proliferation by reprogramming glucose metabolism through HIF1.

PTEN-induced kinase-1 (PINK1) is a Ser/Thr kinase implicated in familial early-onset Parkinson's disease, and was first reported as a growth suppressor. PINK1 loss-of-function compromises both mitochondrial autophagy and oxidative phosphorylation. Here we report that PINK1 deficiency triggers hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF1α) stabilization in cultured Pink1(-/-) mouse embryonic fibroblasts and primary cortical neurons as well as in vivo. This effect, mediated by mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, led to the upregulation of the HIF1 target, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase-1, which inhibits PDH activity. Furthermore, we show that HIF1α stimulates glycolysis in the absence of Pink1, and that the promotion of intracellular glucose metabolism by HIF1α stabilization is required for cell proliferation in Pink1(-/-) mice. We propose that loss of Pink1 reprograms glucose metabolism through HIF1α, sustaining increased cell proliferation.

Real-time multiplex RT-PCR for the simultaneous detection of the five main grapevine viruses.

A real-time multiplex RT-PCR has been developed for the simultaneous detection and identification of the major RNA viruses that infect grapevines (Grapevine fanleaf virus, Arabis mosaic virus, Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 1, Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 and Grapevine fleck virus). Serial dilutions of infected plant extracts were tested using the new method, and the results were compared with those obtained using a commercially available ELISA and real-time singleplex RT-PCR. The two real-time RT-PCR versions detected up to the same level of dilution and were at least 10,000 times more sensitive than the ELISA. In addition, 158 grapevine plants collected in a survey of the Protected Designation of Origin in Alicante, Spain were compared using the three methods. The results of the molecular methods were very similar, with only four discordant results, and both were able to detect many more infected plants than the ELISA. The high prevalence of Grapevine fleck virus, Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 and Grapevine fanleaf virus suggests that the main pathways of viral introduction are infected plant material that has escaped controls and/or uncontrolled traffic of propagating plant material. Real-time multiplex RT-PCR could be used to facilitate a better control of grapevine viruses.