Microphysiological Systems: Stakeholder Challenges to Adoption in Drug Development.

Microphysiological systems (MPS) or tissue chips/organs-on-chips are novel in vitro models that emulate human physiology at the most basic functional level. In this review, we discuss various hurdles to widespread adoption of MPS technology focusing on issues from multiple stakeholder sectors, e.g., academic MPS developers, commercial suppliers of platforms, the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, and regulatory organizations. Broad adoption of MPS technology has thus far been limited by a gap in translation between platform developers, end-users, regulatory agencies, and the pharmaceutical industry. In this brief review, we offer a perspective on the existing barriers and how end-users may help surmount these obstacles to achieve broader adoption of MPS technology.

Organs-on-a-Chip.

Organs-on-chips, also known as "tissue chips" or microphysiological systems (MPS), are bioengineered microsystems capable of recreating aspects of human organ physiology and function and are in vitro tools with multiple applications in drug discovery and development. The ability to recapitulate human and animal tissues in physiologically relevant three-dimensional, multi-cellular environments allows applications in the drug development field, including; (1) use in assessing the safety and toxicity testing of potential therapeutics during early-stage preclinical drug development; (2) confirmation of drug/therapeutic efficacy in vitro; and (3) disease modeling of human tissues to recapitulate pathophysiology within specific subpopulations and even individuals, thereby advancing precision medicine efforts. This chapter will discuss the development and evolution of three-dimensional organ models over the past decade, and some of the opportunities offered by MPS technology that are not available through current standard two-dimensional cell cultures, or three-dimensional organoid systems. This chapter will outline future avenues of research in the MPS field, how cutting-edge biotechnology advances are expanding the applications for these systems, and discuss the current and future potential and challenges remaining for the field to address.

Tissue Chips in Space: Modeling Human Diseases in Microgravity.

PURPOSE: Microphysiological systems (MPS), also known as "organs-on-chips" or "tissue chips," leverage recent advances in cell biology, tissue engineering, and microfabrication to create in vitro models of human organs and tissues. These systems offer promising solutions for modeling human physiology and disease in vitro and have multiple applications in areas where traditional cell culture and animal models fall short. Recently, the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the International Space Station (ISS) U.S. National Laboratory have coordinated efforts to facilitate the launch and use of these MPS platforms onboard the ISS. Here, we provide an introduction to the NIH Tissue Chips in Space initiative and an overview of the coordinated efforts between NIH and the ISS National Laboratory. We also highlight the current progress in addressing the scientific and technical challenges encountered in the development of these ambitious projects. Finally, we describe the potential impact of the Tissue Chips in Space program for the MPS field as well as the wider biomedical and health research communities.

Unique Autonomic Responses to Pain in Yoga Practitioners.

OBJECTIVE: Autonomic nervous system activity is associated with neurobehavioral aspects of pain. Yogis use breathing, relaxation, and mindfulness to tolerate pain, which could influence autonomic responses. To evaluate how the link between autonomic responses and pain is altered by other factors, we compared perceptual and autonomic responses to pain between yogis and controls. METHODS: Nineteen yogis and 15 controls rated warm and painfully hot stimuli (1-cm thermode on calf), with visual anticipatory cues indicating certainly painful, certainly nonpainful, or uncertainly either painful or nonpainful. Heart rate, skin conductance, respiration, and blood pressure were measured. RESULTS: At baseline, yogis breathed slower and deeper than did controls, with no differences in other autonomic measures. During the task, perceptual ratings did not differ between groups in either the certain or uncertain conditions. Nevertheless, yogis had higher phasic skin conductance responses in anticipation of and response to all stimuli, but particularly during painful heat in uncertain contexts (uncertain: 0.46 [0.34] µS; certain: 0.37 [0.28] µS; t(18) = 3.962, p = .001). Furthermore, controls showed a decrease in heart rate to warm (-2.51 [2.17] beats/min) versus painful stimuli (0.83 [1.63] beats/min; t(13) = 5.212, p < .001) and lower respiratory sinus arrhythmia during pain compared with warm trials, whereas yogis had similar reactions to painful and nonpainful stimuli. CONCLUSIONS: Autonomic responses to pain differed in yogis and healthy volunteers, despite similar pain ratings. Thus, autonomic reactivity to pain may be altered by environmental and psychological factors throughout an individual's life.

Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain.

Chronic pain is one of the most prevalent health problems in our modern world, with millions of people debilitated by conditions such as back pain, headache and arthritis. To address this growing problem, many people are turning to mind-body therapies, including meditation, yoga and cognitive behavioural therapy. This article will review the neural mechanisms underlying the modulation of pain by cognitive and emotional states - important components of mind-body therapies. It will also examine the accumulating evidence that chronic pain itself alters brain circuitry, including that involved in endogenous pain control, suggesting that controlling pain becomes increasingly difficult as pain becomes chronic.

Microphysiological Systems (Tissue Chips) and their Utility for Rare Disease Research.

The scientific and technological development of microphysiological systems (MPS) modeling organs-on-chips, or "tissue chips" (TCs), has progressed rapidly over the past decade. Stem cell research and microfluidic concepts have combined to lead to the development of microphysiological platforms representing an ever-expanding list of different human organ systems. In the context of rare diseases, these bioengineered microfluidics platforms hold promise for modeling of disorders and could prove useful in the screening and efficacy testing of existing therapeutics. Additionally, they have the potential for replacing and refining animal use for new drugs and clinical treatments, or could even act as surrogate human systems for testing of new therapeutics in the future, which could be particularly useful in populations of rare disease sufferers. This chapter will discuss the current state of tissue chip research, and challenges facing the field. Additionally, we will discuss how these devices are being used to model basic cellular and molecular phenotypes of rare diseases, holding promise to provide new tools for understanding of disease pathologies and screening and efficacy testing of potential therapeutics for drug discovery.

Metabolic brain activity suggestive of persistent pain in a rat model of neuropathic pain.

Persistent pain is a central characteristic of neuropathic pain conditions in humans. Knowing whether rodent models of neuropathic pain produce persistent pain is therefore crucial to their translational applicability. We investigated the spared nerve injury (SNI) model of neuropathic pain and the formalin pain model in rats using positron emission tomography (PET) with the metabolic tracer [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) to determine if there is ongoing brain activity suggestive of persistent pain. For the formalin model, under brief anesthesia we injected one hindpaw with 5% formalin and the FDG tracer into a tail vein. We then allowed the animals to awaken and observed pain behavior for 30min during the FDG uptake period. The rat was then anesthetized and placed in the scanner for static image acquisition, which took place between minutes 45 and 75 post-tracer injection. A single reference rat brain magnetic resonance image (MRI) was used to align the PET images with the Paxinos and Watson rat brain atlas. Increased glucose metabolism was observed in the somatosensory region associated with the injection site (S1 hindlimb contralateral), S1 jaw/upper lip and cingulate cortex. Decreases were observed in the prelimbic cortex and hippocampus. Second, SNI rats were scanned 3weeks post-surgery using the same scanning paradigm, and region-of-interest analyses revealed increased metabolic activity in the contralateral S1 hindlimb. Finally, a second cohort of SNI rats was scanned while anesthetized during the tracer uptake period, and the S1 hindlimb increase was not observed. Increased brain activity in the somatosensory cortex of SNI rats resembled the activity produced with the injection of formalin, suggesting that the SNI model may produce persistent pain. The lack of increased activity in S1 hindlimb with general anesthetic demonstrates that this effect can be blocked, as well as highlights the importance of investigating brain activity in awake and behaving rodents.

Alleviation of chronic neuropathic pain by environmental enrichment in mice well after the establishment of chronic pain.

BACKGROUND: In animal models, the impact of social and environmental manipulations on chronic pain have been investigated in short term studies where enrichment was implemented prior to or concurrently with the injury. The focus of this study was to evaluate the impact of environmental enrichment or impoverishment in mice three months after induction of chronic neuropathic pain. METHODS: Thirty-four CD-1 seven to eight week-old male mice were used. Mice underwent surgery on the left leg under isoflurane anesthesia to induce the spared nerve injury model of neuropathic pain or sham condition. Mice were then randomly assigned to one of four groups: nerve injury with enriched environment (n = 9), nerve injury with impoverished environment (n = 8), sham surgery with enriched environment (n = 9), or sham surgery with impoverished environment (n = 8). The effects of environmental manipulations on mechanical (von Frey filaments) heat (hot plate) and cold (acetone test) cutaneous hypersensitivities, motor impairment (Rotarod), spontaneous exploratory behavior (open field test), anxiety-like behavior (elevated plus maze) and depression-like phenotype (tail suspension test) were assessed in neuropathic and control mice 1 and 2 months post-environmental change. Finally, the effect of the environment on spinal expression of the pro-nociceptive neuropeptides substance P and CGRP form the lumbar spinal cord collected at the end of the study was evaluated by tandem liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Environmental enrichment attenuated nerve injury-induced hypersensitivity to mechanical and cold stimuli. In contrast, an impoverished environment exacerbated mechanical hypersensitivity. No antidepressant effects of enrichment were observed in animals with chronic neuropathic pain. Finally, environmental enrichment resulted lower SP and CGRP concentrations in neuropathic animals compared to impoverishment. These effects were all observed in animals that had been neuropathic for several months prior to intervention. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that environmental factors could play an important role in the rehabilitation of chronic pain patients well after the establishment of chronic pain. Enrichment is a potentially inexpensive, safe and easily implemented non-pharmacological intervention for the treatment of chronic pain.

Ethically cleared to launch?

Rules are needed for human research in commercial spaceflight.

Microphysiological systems: What it takes for community adoption.

Microphysiological systems (MPS) are promising in vitro tools which could substantially improve the drug development process, particularly for underserved patient populations such as those with rare diseases, neural disorders, and diseases impacting pediatric populations. Currently, one of the major goals of the National Institutes of Health MPS program, led by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), is to demonstrate the utility of this emerging technology and help support the path to community adoption. However, community adoption of MPS technology has been hindered by a variety of factors including biological and technological challenges in device creation, issues with validation and standardization of MPS technology, and potential complications related to commercialization. In this brief Minireview, we offer an NCATS perspective on what current barriers exist to MPS adoption and provide an outlook on the future path to adoption of these in vitro tools.

Organs-on-chips: into the next decade.

Organs-on-chips (OoCs), also known as microphysiological systems or 'tissue chips' (the terms are synonymous), have attracted substantial interest in recent years owing to their potential to be informative at multiple stages of the drug discovery and development process. These innovative devices could provide insights into normal human organ function and disease pathophysiology, as well as more accurately predict the safety and efficacy of investigational drugs in humans. Therefore, they are likely to become useful additions to traditional preclinical cell culture methods and in vivo animal studies in the near term, and in some cases replacements for them in the longer term. In the past decade, the OoC field has seen dramatic advances in the sophistication of biology and engineering, in the demonstration of physiological relevance and in the range of applications. These advances have also revealed new challenges and opportunities, and expertise from multiple biomedical and engineering fields will be needed to fully realize the promise of OoCs for fundamental and translational applications. This Review provides a snapshot of this fast-evolving technology, discusses current applications and caveats for their implementation, and offers suggestions for directions in the next decade.

Tackling rare diseases: Clinical trials on chips.

IMPACT STATEMENT: Designing and conducting clinical trials are extremely difficult in rare diseases. Adapting tissue chips for rare disease therapy development is pivotal in assuring that treatments are available, especially for severe diseases that are difficult to treat. Thus far, the NCATS-led National Institutes of Health (NIH) Tissue Chip program has focused on deploying the technology towards in vitro tools for safety and efficacy assessments of therapeutics. However, exploring the feasibility and best possible approach to expanding this focus towards the development phase of therapeutics is critical to moving the field of CToCs forward and increasing confidence with the use of tissue chips. The working group of stakeholders and experts convened by NCATS and the Drug Information Association (DIA) addresses important questions related to disease setting, test agents, study design, data collection, benefit/risk, and stakeholder engagement-exploring both current and future best use cases and important prerequisites for progress in this area.

Improved Ocular Tissue Models and Eye-On-A-Chip Technologies Will Facilitate Ophthalmic Drug Development.

In this study, we describe efforts by the National Eye Institute (NEI) and National Center for Advancing Translational Science (NCATS) to catalyze advances in 3-dimensional (3-D) ocular organoid and microphysiological systems (MPS). We reviewed the recent literature regarding ocular organoids and tissue chips. Animal models, 2-dimensional cell culture models, and postmortem human tissue samples provide the vision research community with insights critical to understanding pathophysiology and therapeutic development. The advent of induced pluripotent stem cell technologies provide researchers with enticing new approaches and tools that augment study in more traditional models to provide the scientific community with insights that have previously been impossible to obtain. Efforts by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) have already accelerated the pace of scientific discovery, and recent advances in ocular organoid and MPS modeling approaches have opened new avenues of investigation. In addition to more closely recapitulating the morphologies and physiological responses of in vivo human tissue, key breakthroughs have been made in the past year to resolve long-standing scientific questions regarding tissue development, molecular signaling, and pathophysiological mechanisms that promise to provide advances critical to therapeutic development and patient care. 3-D tissue culture modeling and MPS offer platforms for future high-throughput testing of therapeutic candidates and studies of gene interactions to improve models of complex genetic diseases with no well-defined etiology, such as age-related macular degeneration and Fuchs' dystrophy.

Origins, actions and dynamic expression patterns of the neuropeptide VGF in rat peripheral and central sensory neurones following peripheral nerve injury.

BACKGROUND: The role of the neurotrophin regulated polypeptide, VGF, has been investigated in a rat spared injury model of neuropathic pain. This peptide has been shown to be associated with synaptic strengthening and learning in the hippocampus and while it is known that VGFmRNA is upregulated in dorsal root ganglia following peripheral nerve injury, the role of this VGF peptide in neuropathic pain has yet to be investigated. RESULTS: Prolonged upregulation of VGF mRNA and protein was observed in injured dorsal root ganglion neurons, central terminals and their target dorsal horn neurons. Intrathecal application of TLQP-62, the C-terminal active portion of VGF (5-50 nmol) to naïve rats caused a long-lasting mechanical and cold behavioral allodynia. Direct actions of 50 nM TLQP-62 upon dorsal horn neuron excitability was demonstrated in whole cell patch recordings in spinal cord slices and in receptive field analysis in intact, anesthetized rats where significant actions of VGF were upon spontaneous activity and cold evoked responses. CONCLUSION: VGF expression is therefore highly modulated in nociceptive pathways following peripheral nerve injury and can cause dorsal horn cell excitation and behavioral hypersensitivity in naïve animals. Together the results point to a novel and powerful role for VGF in neuropathic pain.

Organs-on-chips: Progress, challenges, and future directions.

The National Institutes of Health Microphysiological Systems (MPS) program, led by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, is part of a joint effort on MPS development with the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and with regulatory guidance from FDA, is now in its final year of funding. The program has produced many tangible outcomes in tissue chip development in terms of stem cell differentiation, microfluidic engineering, platform development, and single and multi-organ systems-and continues to help facilitate the acceptance and use of tissue chips by the wider community. As the first iteration of the program draws to a close, this Commentary will highlight some of the goals met, and lay out some of the challenges uncovered that will remain to be addressed as the field progresses. The future of the program will also be outlined. Impact statement This work is important to the field as it outlines the progress and challenges faced by the NIH Microphysiological Systems program to date, and the future of the program. This is useful information for the field to be aware of, both for current program stakeholders and future awardees and partners.

Modest Amounts of Voluntary Exercise Reduce Pain- and Stress-Related Outcomes in a Rat Model of Persistent Hind Limb Inflammation.

Aerobic exercise improves outcomes in a variety of chronic health conditions, yet the support for exercise-induced effects on chronic pain in humans is mixed. Although many rodent studies have examined the effects of exercise on persistent hypersensitivity, the most used forced exercise paradigms that are known to be highly stressful. Because stress can also produce analgesic effects, we studied how voluntary exercise, known to reduce stress in healthy subjects, alters hypersensitivity, stress, and swelling in a rat model of persistent hind paw inflammation. Our data indicate that voluntary exercise rapidly and effectively reduces hypersensitivity as well as stress-related outcomes without altering swelling. Moreover, the level of exercise is unrelated to the analgesic and stress-reducing effects, suggesting that even modest amounts of exercise may impart significant benefit in persistent inflammatory pain states. PERSPECTIVE: Modest levels of voluntary exercise reduce pain- and stress-related outcomes in a rat model of persistent inflammatory pain, independently of the amount of exercise. As such, consistent, self-regulated activity levels may be more relevant to health improvement in persistent pain states than standardized exercise goals.

Comment on "Molecular and neural basis of contagious itch behavior in mice".

Yu et al (Reports, 10 March 2017, p. 1072) state that contagious itch occurs in mice based on imitative scratching in normal mice observing excessive scratching in genetically modified demonstrator mice. However, despite employing multiple behavioral analysis approaches, we were unable to extend these findings to normal mice observing the well-established histamine model of acute itch in demonstrator mice.

Tissue Chips to aid drug development and modeling for rare diseases.

INTRODUCTION: The technologies used to design, create and use microphysiological systems (MPS, "tissue chips" or "organs-on-chips") have progressed rapidly in the last 5 years, and validation studies of the functional relevance of these platforms to human physiology, and response to drugs for individual model organ systems, are well underway. These studies are paving the way for integrated multi-organ systems that can model diseases and predict drug efficacy and toxicology of multiple organs in real-time, improving the potential for diagnostics and development of novel treatments of rare diseases in the future. AREAS COVERED: This review will briefly summarize the current state of tissue chip research and highlight model systems where these microfabricated (or bioengineered) devices are already being used to screen therapeutics, model disease states, and provide potential treatments in addition to helping elucidate the basic molecular and cellular phenotypes of rare diseases. EXPERT OPINION: Microphysiological systems hold great promise and potential for modeling rare disorders, as well as for their potential use to enhance the predictive power of new drug therapeutics, plus potentially increase the statistical power of clinical trials while removing the inherent risks of these trials in rare disease populations.

Comparing the Effects of Isoflurane and Alpha Chloralose upon Mouse Physiology.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging of mice requires that the physiology of the mouse (body temperature, respiration and heart rates, blood pH level) be maintained in order to prevent changes affecting the outcomes of functional scanning, namely blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) measures and cerebral blood flow (CBF). The anesthetic used to sedate mice for scanning can have major effects on physiology. While alpha chloralose has been commonly used for functional imaging of rats, its effects on physiology are not well characterized in the literature for any species. In this study, we anesthetized or sedated mice with isoflurane or alpha chloralose for up to two hours, and monitored physiological parameters and arterial blood gasses. We found that, when normal body temperature is maintained, breathing rates for both drugs decrease over the course of two hours. In addition, alpha chloralose causes a substantial drop in heart rate and blood pH with severe hypercapnia (elevated blood CO2) that is not seen in isoflurane-treated animals. We suggest that alpha chloralose does not maintain normal mouse physiology adequately for functional brain imaging outcome measures.