Single-cell transcriptomic analysis identifies extensive heterogeneity in the cellular composition of mouse Achilles tendons.

Tendon is a dense connective tissue that stores and transmits forces between muscles and bones. Cellular heterogeneity is increasingly recognized as an important factor in the biological basis of tissue homeostasis and disease, yet little is known about the diversity of cell types that populate tendon. To address this, we determined the heterogeneity of cell populations within mouse Achilles tendons using single-cell RNA sequencing. In assembling a transcriptomic atlas of Achilles tendons, we identified 11 distinct types of cells, including three previously undescribed populations of tendon fibroblasts. Prior studies have indicated that pericytes, which are found in the vasculature of tendons, could serve as a potential source of progenitor cells for adult tendon fibroblasts. Using trajectory inference analysis, we provide additional support for the notion that pericytes are likely to be at least one of the progenitor cell populations for the fibroblasts that compose adult tendons. We also modeled cell-cell interactions and identified previously undescribed ligand-receptor signaling interactions involved in tendon homeostasis. Our novel and interactive tendon atlas highlights previously underappreciated heterogeneity between and within tendon cell populations. The atlas also serves as a resource to further the understanding of tendon extracellular matrix assembly and maintenance and in the design of therapies for tendinopathies.

Proposed mechanisms for oligonucleotide IMT504 induced diabetes reversion in a mouse model of immunodependent diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) originates from autoimmune ß-cell destruction. IMT504 is an immunomodulatory oligonucleotide that increases mesenchymal stem cell cloning capacity and reverts toxic diabetes in rats. Here, we evaluated long-term (20 doses) and short-term (2-6 doses) effects of IMT504 (20 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1) sc) in an immunodependent diabetes model: multiple low-dose streptozotocin-injected BALB/c mice (40 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1) ip for 5 consecutive days). We determined blood glucose, glucose tolerance, serum insulin, islet morphology, islet infiltration, serum cytokines, progenitor cell markers, immunomodulatory proteins, proliferation, apoptosis, and islet gene expression. IMT504 reduced glycemia, induced ß-cell recovery, and impaired islet infiltration. IMT504 induced early blood glucose decrease and infiltration inhibition, increased ß-cell proliferation and decreased apoptosis, increased islet indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) expression, and increased serum tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 (IL-6). IMT504 affected islet gene expression; preproinsulin-2, proglucagon, somatostatin, nestin, regenerating gene-1, and C-X-C motif ligand-1 cytokine (Cxcl1) increased in islets from diabetic mice and were decreased by IMT504. IMT504 downregulated platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (Pecam1) in islets from control and diabetic mice, whereas it increased regenerating gene-2 (Reg2) in islets of diabetic mice. The IMT504-induced increase in IL-6 and islet IDO expression and decreased islet Pecam1 and Cxcl1 mRNA expression could participate in keeping leukocyte infiltration at bay, whereas upregulation of Reg2 may mediate ß-cell regeneration. We conclude that IMT504 effectively reversed immunodependent diabetes in mice. Corroboration of these effects in a model of autoimmune diabetes more similar to human T1D could provide promising results for the treatment of this disease.

Understanding the interaction between leukaemia stem cells and their microenvironment to improve therapeutic approaches.

Although chemotherapeutic regimens can eliminate blasts in leukaemia patients, such therapies are associated with toxicity and often fail to eliminate all malignant cells resulting in disease relapse. Disease relapse has been attributed to the persistence of leukaemia cells in the bone marrow (BM) with the capacity to recapitulate disease; these cells are often referred to as leukaemia stem cells (LSCs). Although LSCs have distinct characteristics in terms of pathobiology and immunophenotype, they are still regulated by their interactions with the surrounding microenvironment. Thus, understanding the interaction between LSCs and their microenvironment is critical to identify effective therapies. To this end, there are numerous efforts to develop models to study such interactions. In this review, we will focus on the reciprocal interactions between LSCs and their milieu in the BM. Furthermore, we will highlight relevant therapies targeting these interactions and discuss some of the promising in vitro models designed to mimic such relationship. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue on Cancer Microenvironment and Pharmacological Interventions. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v181.2/issuetoc.

Expression of osteoprotegerin, receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, stromal cell-derived factor-1 and their receptors in epithelial metastatic breast cancer cell lines.

BACKGROUND: While breast cancer (BC) is the major cause of death among women worldwide, there is no guarantee of better patient survival because many of these patients develop primarily metastases, despite efforts to detect it in its early stages. Bone metastasis is a common complication that occurs in 65-80 % of patients with disseminated disease, but the molecular basis underlying dormancy, dissemination and establishment of metastasis is not understood. Our objective has been to evaluate simultaneously osteoprotegerin (OPG), receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL), tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1), and their receptors (R) in 2 human BC cell lines, MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7. METHODS: OPG, RANKL, TRAIL and SDF-1 expression and release, in addition to the expression of their receptors has been investigated using immunofluorescence, immunocytochemistry and ELISA analyses. RESULTS: MCF-7 cells released higher levels of OPG in conditioned media (CM) than MDA-MB-231 cells; 100 % of both types of cell expressed OPG, RANKL, TRAIL and SDF-1. Moreover, 100 % in both lines expressed membrane RANKL and RANK, whereas only 50 % expressed CXCR4. Furthermore, 100 % expressed TRAIL-R1 and R4, 30-50 % TRAIL-R2, and 40-55 % TRAIL-R3. CONCLUSIONS: MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells not only released OPG, but expressed RANKL, TRAIL and SDF-1. The majority of the cells also expressed RANK, CXCR4 and TRAIL-R. Since these ligands and their receptors are implicated in the regulation of proliferation, survival, migration and future bone metastasis during breast tumor progression, assessment of these molecules in tumor biopsies of BC patients could be useful in identifying patients with more aggressive tumors that are also at risk of bone metastasis, which may thus improve the available options for therapeutic intervention.

Regulatory T Cells Support Breast Cancer Progression by Opposing IFN-γ-Dependent Functional Reprogramming of Myeloid Cells.

Regulatory T (Treg) cell infiltration of solid tumors often correlates with poor prognosis, but their tumor-suppressive function lacks mechanistic understanding. Through a combination of transgenic mice, cell fate mapping, adoptive transfer, and co-injection strategies, we demonstrate that Treg cell ablation-dependent anti-tumor effects in murine breast cancer require intratumoral recruitment of CCR2+ inflammatory monocytes, which primarily differentiate into tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and lead to reprogramming of their function in an IFN-γ-dependent manner. Furthermore, transcriptomic signatures from murine TAMs in Treg cell-ablated conditions correlate with increased overall survival in human breast cancer. Our studies highlight the strong myeloid dependency of breast cancer and provide the basis for the development of therapeutic strategies based on manipulation of the IFN-γ signaling pathway in monocytes.

Adaptive and innate immune cell responses in tendons and lymph nodes after tendon injury and repair.

Tendon injuries are a common clinical condition with limited treatment options. The cellular components of the innate immune system, such as neutrophils and macrophages, have been studied in tendon injuries. However, the adaptive immune system, comprising specialized lymphocytes, plays an important role in orchestrating the healing of numerous tissues, but less is known about these cells in tendon healing. To gain a greater understanding of the biological processes that regulate tendon healing, we determined how the cellular components of the adaptive and innate immune system respond to a tendon injury using two-month-old male mice. We observed that lymphatic vasculature is present in the epitenon and superficial regions of Achilles tendons, and that the lymphatics drain into the popliteal lymph node. We then created an acute Achilles tenotomy followed by repair, and collected tendons and popliteal lymph nodes 1, 2, and 4 wk after injury. Tendon injury resulted in a robust adaptive immune cell response that followed an initial innate immune cell response in tendons and lymph nodes. Monocytes, neutrophils, and macrophages initially accumulated at 1 wk after injury in tendons, while dendritic cells and CD4+ T cells peaked at 2 wk after injury. B cells and CD8+ T cells progressively increased over time. In parallel, immune cells of the popliteal lymph node demonstrated a similarly coordinated response to the injury. These results suggest that there is an adaptive immune response to tendon injury, and adaptive immune cells may play a role in regulating tendon healing.NEW & NOTEWORTHY While the innate immune system, consisting of macrophages and related hematopoietic cells, has been studied in tendon injury, less is known about the adaptive immune system. Using a mouse model of Achilles tendon tenotomy and repair, we observed an adaptive immune cell response, consisting of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and B cells, which occur through 4 wk after tendon injury. This response appeared to be coordinated by the draining popliteal lymph node.

Regulatory T Cells Control the Switch From in situ to Invasive Breast Cancer.

Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is a non-obligate precursor of breast cancer, and it only progresses to invasive breast cancer in around 40% of patients. While immune infiltrates have been observed in these early cancer lesions, their potential prognostic value is still unclear. Regulatory T (Treg) cells accumulate in advanced breast cancers, and predict poor outcome. We have shown before that ablation of Treg cells in established tumors leads to significant decrease in primary and metastatic tumor burden. In this work, we sought to investigate Treg cell function in the progression from non-invasive to invasive breast cancer lesions. To this end, we used the murine mammary tumor virus polyoma middle T (MMTV-PyMT) murine model of spontaneous, stage-wise breast carcinogenesis crossed to Foxp3 DTR knock in mice, allowing Treg cell ablation by administration of diphtheria toxin. Transient targeting of Treg cells at the in situ carcinoma stage resulted in a significant increase in the number of tumor-bearing mammary glands and size of growing tumors compared with control mice. Whole mammary gland mounts and histological examination confirmed larger emergent tumor area in Treg cell-ablated mice, and revealed that these tumors were characterized by a more advanced tumor staging, with presence of early invasion, increased desmoplasia and collagen deposition. Furthermore, Treg cell ablation increased the percentage of cancer stem/progenitor cells in the mammary compartment. Interestingly, Treg cell ablation resulted in increased inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 with a concomitant reduction in classically activated tumor associated macrophages. This TH2-biased immune regulatory mammary inflammation was consistent with the enhancement in tumor promotion that we observed. Overall, our study demonstrates that Treg cells oppose breast cancer progression at early stages, raising a cautionary note regarding the consideration of immune intervention targeted at boosting immune responses for DCIS.

Behaviour of mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow of untreated advanced breast and lung cancer patients without bone osteolytic metastasis.

Tumour cells can find in bone marrow (BM) a niche rich in growth factors and cytokines that promote their self-renewal, proliferation and survival. In turn, tumour cells affect the homeostasis of the BM and bone, as well as the balance among haematopoiesis, osteogenesis, osteoclastogenesis and bone-resorption. As a result, growth and survival factors normally sequestered in the bone matrix are released, favouring tumour development. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from BM can become tumour-associated fibroblasts, have immunosuppressive function, and facilitate metastasis by epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Moreover, MSCs generate osteoblasts and osteocytes and regulate osteoclastogenesis. Therefore, MSCs can play an important pro-tumorigenic role in the formation of a microenvironment that promotes BM and bone metastasis. In this study we showed that BM MSCs from untreated advanced breast and lung cancer patients, without bone metastasis, had low osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation capacity compared to that of healthy volunteers. In contrast, chondrogenic differentiation was increased. Moreover, MSCs from patients had lower expression of CD146. Finally, our data showed higher levels of Dkk-1 in peripheral blood plasma from patients compared with healthy volunteers. Because no patient had any bone disorder by the time of the study we propose that the primary tumour altered the plasticity of MSCs. As over 70 % of advanced breast cancer patients and 30-40 % of lung cancer patients will develop osteolytic bone metastasis for which there is no total cure, our findings could possibly be used as predictive tools indicating the first signs of future bone disease. In addition, as the MSCs present in the BM of these patients may not be able to regenerate bone after the tumour cells invasion into BM/bone, it is possible that they promote the cycle between tumour cell growth and bone destruction.