The role of the sympathetic efferents in endotoxin-induced localized inflammatory hyperalgesia and cytokine upregulation.

The sympathetic system (SNS) is considered to be a major component of the neurogenic contribution to inflammation and hyperalgesia. We have investigated the role of the SNS in the local inflammatory pain induced by intraplantar (i.pl) injections of bacterial endotoxin (ET). Treatment of rats with an alpha-adrenoceptor antagonist (phentolamine, 0.25-1 mg/kg, i.p.), a beta-adrenoceptor antagonist (propranolol, 1-10 mg/kg, p.o.) or a sympathetic neuron-blocking agent (guanethedine, 30 mg/kg, s.c.) resulted in a dose-dependent reduction of the thermal hyperalgesia induced by ET. Mechanical hyperalgesia, however, was less sensitive to inhibition by propranolol and guanethedine but significantly inhibited by phentolamine. ET injection produced significant upregulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), IL-6, and nerve growth factor (NGF). Treatment with any one of the three sympatholytics abolished the upregulation of NGF and IL-6, while phentolamine and guanethedine also reversed the upregulation of TNF-alpha. IL-1 beta was resistant to all of the sympatholytic treatments. We conclude that the SNS can contribute to the local inflammation and hyperalgesia following injection of ET. The resistance to sympatholytics shown by IL-1 beta, known to play a key role in the inflammatory cascade, suggests that ET can initiate inflammation and hyperalgesia independently of peripheral and central sympathetic mechanisms.

Involvement of substance P, CGRP and histamine in the hyperalgesia and cytokine upregulation induced by intraplantar injection of capsaicin in rats.

Intraplantar (i.pl.) injection of small doses of capsaicin has been shown to produce hyperalgesia and upregulation of the levels of proinflammatory cytokines. The present work aimed at investigating the possible mediation of these effects by sensory neuropeptides and mast cells. Various groups of rats received i.pl. injection of capsaicin alone or preceded by the injection of antagonists to substance P (SP), calcitonin gene-related protein (CGRP) and histamine (H1, H2) or the mast cell blocker ketotifen. All pretreatments prevented, in a dose-related manner, the capsaicin-induced hyperalgesia. The SP, H2 antagonists and ketotifen prevented the upregulation of all cytokines and nerve growth factor (NGF) levels, while the CGRP and H1 antagonists showed only attenuation of the NGF level.

Thymulin reverses inflammatory hyperalgesia and modulates the increased concentration of proinflammatory cytokines induced by i.c.v. endotoxin injection.

The immunomodulatory thymic hormone thymulin has been shown previously to possess anti-inflammatory actions in the periphery. In this study, we have examined the effect of i.c.v. injections of either endotoxin (ET) or thymulin, in separate groups of conscious rats, on pain-related behavior and cytokine levels in different areas of the brain. Furthermore, we investigated the effect of pretreatment with either i.c.v. or i.p. injections of thymulin on endotoxin-induced hyperalgesia and the effect of pretreatment with i.c.v. thymulin on endotoxin-induced up-regulation of cytokine levels. Our results demonstrate that i.c.v. injection of endotoxin (1 microg in 5 microl saline) resulted in a significant decrease in the nociceptive thresholds as assessed by different pain tests, with peak hyperalgesia at 3 h. However, thymulin at different doses, when injected (i.c.v.), had no significant effect on pain related behavior. Pretreatment (i.c.v.) with thymulin (0.1, 0.5 and 1 microg in 5 microl saline) 20 min before endotoxin (i.c.v.) injection (1 microg in 5 microl saline) reduced, in a dose dependent manner, the endotoxin-induced hyperalgesia and exerted differential effects on the up-regulated levels of cytokines in different areas of the brain. The results provide behavioral and immunochemical characterization of a rat model for intracerebral inflammation and indicates a neuroprotective role for thymulin in the CNS.

Modulation of ultraviolet-induced hyperalgesia and cytokine upregulation by interleukins 10 and 13.

1. Exposure to midrange ultraviolet radiation (UVB) is known to produce skin inflammation similar to sunburn. The aim of this study was to characterize the hyperalgesia and cytokine upregulation induced by UVB and their modulation by antiinflammatory cytokines. 2. Acute exposure of the dorsal skin of mice to UVB (200, 250 and 300 mJ cm(2)) resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in the latencies of the hot plate and tail flick tests, without evident signs of skin lesions. 3. The observed hyperalgesia displayed a biphasic temporal evolution with an acute phase (3 - 6 h) and a late (48 - 96 h) phase. 4. Exposure to UVB (300 mJ cm(2)) elicited significant upregulation of interleukin (IL)-1 beta, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and nerve growth factor (NGF), determined by ELISA in the exposed skin. This upregulation was more important during the acute phase of hyperalgesia. 5. Daily treatment of mice, with i.p. injections of either IL-10 or IL-13 (1.5, 7.5 and 15 ng in 100 microl saline) produced a dose-dependent attenuation of the UVB-induced hyperalgesia. 6. Treatment with the highest doses of either IL-10 or IL-13, produced significant attenuation of the levels of the cytokines and NGF by UVB, with relatively more pronounced effects by IL-13. 7. Acute exposure to moderate amounts of UVB results in a systemic hyperalgesia related to the upregulation of cytokine and NGF levels, since both were prevented by treatment with antiinflammatory cytokines.

Upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines and nerve growth factor by intraplantar injection of capsaicin in rats.

Capsaicin-sensitive primary afferents (CSPA) are known to be involved in nociception and neurogenic inflammation. Extensive research has been devoted to the sensory role of these fibres but less attention has been paid to their local effector function. This study aimed at gaining more insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying the neurogenic inflammation induced by this special group of afferent fibres. Different groups of rats (n = 5 in each group), either naive or subjected to selective ablation of their CSPA, received individual intraplantar injections of saline, capsaicin, its vehicle or capsaicin preceded by its antagonist, capsazepine. Acute tests for nociception were used to assess the variations of the nociceptive thresholds. Variations of the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and nerve growth factor (NGF) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Intraplantar injection of capsaicin (10 microg in 50 microl) produced a sustained thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia that peaked at 3-6 h and disappeared 24 h following the injection. Similar capsaicin injection in further groups of rats produced an early upregulation of the proinflammatory cytokines and NGF, which peaked at 30-60 min and returned to control levels within 2-5 h. Similar effects were observed following the application of either capsaicin or intense electrical stimulation on the cut end of the distal portion of the sciatic nerve. The effects of capsaicin were abolished in rats subjected to selective ablation of their CSPA. These results demonstrate that CSPA can simultaneously challenge the immune system through the release of proinflammatory mediators and the central nervous system through nociceptive signalling and can therefore serve as a common afferent pathway to both immune and nervous systems.