Toxoplasma gondii scavenges mammalian host organelles through the usurpation of host ESCRT-III and Vps4A.

Intracellular pathogens exploit cellular resources through host cell manipulation. Within its nonfusogenic parasitophorous vacuole (PV), Toxoplasma gondii targets host nutrient-filled organelles and sequesters them into the PV through deep invaginations of the PV membrane (PVM) that ultimately detach from this membrane. Some of these invaginations are generated by an intravacuolar network (IVN) of parasite-derived tubules attached to the PVM. Here, we examined the usurpation of host ESCRT-III and Vps4A by the parasite to create PVM buds and vesicles. CHMP4B associated with the PVM/IVN, and dominant-negative (DN) CHMP4B formed many long PVM invaginations containing CHMP4B filaments. These invaginations were shorter in IVN-deficient parasites, suggesting cooperation between the IVN and ESCRT. In infected cells expressing Vps4A-DN, enlarged intra-PV structures containing host endolysosomes accumulated, reflecting defects in PVM scission. Parasite mutants lacking T. gondii (Tg)GRA14 or TgGRA64, which interact with ESCRT, reduced CHMP4B-DN-induced PVM invaginations and intra-PV host organelles, with greater defects in a double knockout, revealing the exploitation of ESCRT to scavenge host organelles by Toxoplasma.

Toxoplasma gondii exploits the host ESCRT machinery for parasite uptake of host cytosolic proteins.

Toxoplasma gondii is a master manipulator capable of effectively siphoning the resources from the host cell for its intracellular subsistence. However, the molecular underpinnings of how the parasite gains resources from its host remain largely unknown. Residing within a non-fusogenic parasitophorous vacuole (PV), the parasite must acquire resources across the limiting membrane of its replicative niche, which is decorated with parasite proteins including those secreted from dense granules. We discovered a role for the host Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport (ESCRT) machinery in host cytosolic protein uptake by T. gondii by disrupting host ESCRT function. We identified the transmembrane dense granule protein TgGRA14, which contains motifs homologous to the late domain motifs of HIV-1 Gag, as a candidate for the recruitment of the host ESCRT machinery to the PV membrane. Using an HIV-1 virus-like particle (VLP) release assay, we found that the motif-containing portion of TgGRA14 is sufficient to substitute for HIV-1 Gag late domain to mediate ESCRT-dependent VLP budding. We also show that TgGRA14 is proximal to and interacts with host ESCRT components and other dense granule proteins during infection. Furthermore, analysis of TgGRA14-deficient parasites revealed a marked reduction in ingestion of a host cytosolic protein compared to WT parasites. Thus, we propose a model in which T. gondii recruits the host ESCRT machinery to the PV where it can interact with TgGRA14 for the internalization of host cytosolic proteins across the PV membrane (PVM). These findings provide new insight into how T. gondii accesses contents of the host cytosol by exploiting a key pathway for vesicular budding and membrane scission.

Toxoplasma gondii PPM3C, a secreted protein phosphatase, affects parasitophorous vacuole effector export.

The intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii infects a large proportion of humans worldwide and can cause adverse complications in the settings of immune-compromise and pregnancy. T. gondii thrives within many different cell types due in part to its residence within a specialized and heavily modified compartment in which the parasite divides, termed the parasitophorous vacuole. Within this vacuole, numerous proteins optimize intracellular survival following their secretion by the parasite. We investigated the contribution of one of these proteins, TgPPM3C, predicted to contain a PP2C-class serine/threonine phosphatase domain and previously shown to interact with the protein MYR1, an essential component of a putative vacuolar translocon that mediates effector export into the host cell. Parasites lacking the TgPPM3C gene exhibit a minor growth defect in vitro, are avirulent during acute infection in mice, and form fewer cysts in mouse brain during chronic infection. Phosphoproteomic assessment of TgPPM3C deleted parasite cultures demonstrated alterations in the phosphorylation status of many secreted vacuolar proteins including two exported effector proteins, GRA16 and GRA28, as well as MYR1. Parasites lacking TgPPM3C are defective in GRA16 and GRA28 export, but not in the export of other MYR1-dependant effectors. Phosphomimetic mutation of two GRA16 serine residues results in export defects, suggesting that de-phosphorylation is a critical step in the process of GRA16 export. These findings provide another example of the emerging role of phosphatases in regulating the complex environment of the T. gondii parasitophorous vacuole and influencing the export of specific effector proteins from the vacuolar lumen into the host cell.

Point mutations that inactivate MGAT4D-L, an inhibitor of MGAT1 and complex N-glycan synthesis.

The membrane-bound, long form of MGAT4D, termed MGAT4D-L, inhibits MGAT1 activity in transfected cells and reduces the generation of complex N-glycans. MGAT1 is the GlcNAc-transferase that initiates complex and hybrid N-glycan synthesis. We show here that Drosophila MGAT1 was also inhibited by MGAT4D-L in S2 cells. In mammalian cells, expression of MGAT4D-L causes the substrate of MGAT1 (Man5GlcNAc2Asn) to accumulate on glycoproteins, a change that is detected by the lectin Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA). Using GNA binding as an assay for the inhibition of MGAT1 in MGAT4D-L transfectants, we performed site-directed mutagenesis to determine requirements for MGAT1 inhibition. Deletion of 25 amino acids (aa) from the C terminus inactivated MGAT4D-L, but deletion of 20 aa did not. Conversion of the five key amino acids (PSLFQ) to Ala, or deletion of PSLFQ in the context of full-length MGAT4D-L, also inactivated MGAT1 inhibitory activity. Nevertheless, mutant, inactive MGAT4D-L interacted with MGAT1 in co-immuno-precipitation experiments. The PSLFQ sequence also occurs in MGAT4A and MGAT4B GlcNAc-transferases. However, neither inhibited MGAT1 in transfected CHO cells. MGAT4D-L inhibitory activity could be partially transferred by attaching PSLFQ or the 25-aa C terminus of MGAT4D-L to the C terminus of MGAT1. Mutation of each amino acid in PSLFQ to Ala identified both Leu and Phe as independently essential for MGAT4D-L activity. Thus, replacement of either Leu-395 or Phe-396 with Ala led to inactivation of MGAT4D-L inhibitory activity. These findings provide new insights into the mechanism of inhibition of MGAT1 by MGAT4D-L, and for the development of small molecule inhibitors of MGAT1.

The nutritional environment determines which and how intestinal stem cells contribute to homeostasis and tumorigenesis.

Sporadic colon cancer accounts for approximately 80% of colorectal cancer (CRC) with high incidence in Western societies strongly linked to long-term dietary patterns. A unique mouse model for sporadic CRC results from feeding a purified rodent Western-style diet (NWD1) recapitulating intake for the mouse of common nutrient risk factors each at its level consumed in higher risk Western populations. This causes sporadic large and small intestinal tumors in wild-type mice at an incidence and frequency similar to that in humans. NWD1 perturbs intestinal cell maturation and Wnt signaling throughout villi and colonic crypts and decreases mouse Lgr5hi intestinal stem cell contribution to homeostasis and tumor development. Here we establish that NWD1 transcriptionally reprograms Lgr5hi cells, and that nutrients are interactive in reprogramming. Furthermore, the DNA mismatch repair pathway is elevated in Lgr5hi cells by lower vitamin D3 and/or calcium in NWD1, paralleled by reduced accumulation of relevant somatic mutations detected by single-cell exome sequencing. In compensation, NWD1 also reprograms Bmi1+ cells to function and persist as stem-like cells in mucosal homeostasis and tumor development. The data establish the key role of the nutrient environment in defining the contribution of two different stem cell populations to both mucosal homeostasis and tumorigenesis. This raises important questions regarding impact of variable human diets on which and how stem cell populations function in the human mucosa and give rise to tumors. Moreover, major differences reported in turnover of human and mouse crypt base stem cells may be linked to their very different nutrient exposures.

Complete Genome Sequence of Legionella cardiaca Strain H63T, Isolated from a Case of Native Valve Endocarditis.

We report the complete genome sequence of Legionella cardiaca strain H63T, which had been isolated from aortic valve tissue from a patient with native endocarditis. The genome assembly contains a single 3,477,232-bp contig, with a G+C content of 38.59%, and is predicted to encode 2,948 proteins.

Dense Granule Protein GRA64 Interacts with Host Cell ESCRT Proteins during Toxoplasma gondii Infection.

The intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii adapts to diverse host cell environments within a replicative compartment that is heavily decorated by secreted proteins. In an attempt to identify novel parasite secreted proteins that influence host cell activity, we identified and characterized a transmembrane dense granule protein dubbed GRA64 (TGME49_202620). We found that GRA64 is on the parasitophorous vacuolar membrane (PVM) and is partially exposed to the host cell cytoplasm in both tachyzoite and bradyzoite parasitophorous vacuoles. Using co-immunoprecipitation and proximity-based biotinylation approaches, we demonstrated that GRA64 appears to interact with components of the host endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT). Genetic disruption of GRA64 does not affect acute Toxoplasma virulence or encystation in mice, as observed via tissue cyst burdens in mice during chronic infection. However, ultrastructural analysis of Δgra64 tissue cysts using electron tomography revealed enlarged vesicular structures underneath the cyst membrane, suggesting a role for GRA64 in organizing the recruitment of ESCRT proteins and subsequent intracystic vesicle formation. This study uncovers a novel host-parasite interaction that contributes to an emerging paradigm in which specific host ESCRT proteins are recruited to the limiting membranes (PVMs) of tachyzoite and bradyzoite vacuoles formed during acute and chronic Toxoplasma infection. IMPORTANCE Toxoplasma gondii is a widespread foodborne parasite that causes congenital disease and life-threatening complications in immunocompromised individuals. Part of this parasite's success lies in its ability to infect diverse organisms and host cells and to persist as a latent infection within parasite-constructed structures called tissue cysts. In this study, we characterized a protein that is secreted by T. gondii into its parasitophorous vacuole during intracellular infection, which we dub GRA64. On the vacuolar membrane, this protein is exposed to the host cell cytosol and interacts with specific host ESCRT proteins. Parasites lacking the GRA64 protein exhibit ultrastructural changes in tissue cysts during chronic infection. This study lays the foundation for future studies on the mechanics and consequences of host ESCRT-parasite protein interactions.

Toxoplasma gondii Matrix Antigen 1 Is a Secreted Immunomodulatory Effector.

Our studies on novel cyst wall proteins serendipitously led us to the discovery that cyst wall and vacuolar matrix protein MAG1, first identified a quarter of a century ago, functions as a secreted immunomodulatory effector. MAG1 is a dense granular protein that is found in the parasitophorous vacuolar matrix in tachyzoite vacuoles and the cyst wall and matrix in bradyzoite vacuoles. In the current study, we demonstrated that MAG1 is secreted beyond the parasitophorous vacuole into the host cytosol in both tachyzoites and bradyzoites. Secretion of MAG1 gradually decreases as the parasitophorous vacuole matures, but prominent MAG1 puncta are present inside host cells even at 4 and 6 days following infection. During acute murine infection, Δmag1 parasites displayed significantly reduced virulence and dissemination. In the chronic stage of infection, Δmag1 parasites generated almost no brain cysts. To identify the mechanism behind the attenuated pathology seen with Δmag1 parasites, various immune responses were screened in vitro using bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). Infection of BMDM with Δmag1 parasites induced a significant increase in interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß) secretion, which is a hallmark of inflammasome activation. Heterologous complementation of MAG1 in BMDM cells prevented this Δmag1 parasite-induced IL-1ß release, indicating that secreted MAG1 in host cytosol dampens inflammasome activation. Furthermore, knocking out GRA15 (an inducer of IL-1ß release) in Δmag1 parasites completely inhibited all IL-1ß release by host cells following infection. These data suggest that MAG1 has a role as an immunomodulatory molecule and that by suppressing inflammasome activation, it would favor survival of the parasite and the establishment of latent infection.IMPORTANCEToxoplasma gondii is an Apicomplexan that infects a third of humans, causing encephalitis in AIDS patients and intellectual disabilities in congenitally infected patients. We determined that one of the cyst matrix proteins, MAG1, which had been thought to be an innate structural protein, can be secreted into the host cell and suppress the host immune reaction. This particular immune reaction is initiated by another parasite-secreted protein, GRA15. The intricate balance of inflammasome activation by GRA15 and suppression by MAG1 protects mice from acute death while enabling parasites to disseminate and establish chronic cysts. Our finding contributes to our understanding of how parasites persist in the host and how T. gondii modulates the host immune system.

In Vitro Characterization of Protein Effector Export in the Bradyzoite Stage of Toxoplasma gondii.

The ubiquitous parasite Toxoplasma gondii exhibits an impressive ability to maintain chronic infection of its host for prolonged periods. Despite this, little is known regarding whether and how T. gondii bradyzoites, a quasi-dormant life stage residing within intracellular cysts, manipulate the host cell to maintain persistent infection. A previous proteomic study of the cyst wall, an amorphous layer of proteins that forms underneath the cyst membrane, identified MYR1 as a putative cyst wall protein in vitro Because MYR1 is known to be involved in the translocation of parasite-derived effector proteins into the host cell, we sought to determine whether parasites transitioning toward the bradyzoite life stage retain the capacity to translocate proteins via this pathway. By epitope tagging the endogenous loci of four known effectors that translocate from the parasitophorous vacuole into the host cell nucleus, we show, by immunofluorescence assays, that most effectors accumulate in the host nucleus at early but not late time points after infection, during the tachyzoite-to-bradyzoite transition and when parasites further along the bradyzoite differentiation continuum invade a new host cell. We demonstrate that the suppression of interferon gamma signaling, which was previously shown to be mediated by the effector TgIST, also occurs in the context of prolonged infection with bradyzoites and that TgIST export is a process that occurs beyond the early stages of host cell infection. These findings have important implications regarding how this highly successful parasite maintains persistent infection of its host.IMPORTANCEToxoplasma bradyzoites persist within tissue cysts and are refractory to current treatments, serving as a reservoir for acute complications in settings of compromised immunity. Much remains to be understood regarding how this life stage successfully establishes and maintains persistent infection. In this study, we investigated whether the export of parasite effector proteins into the host cell occurs during the development of in vitro tissue cysts. We quantified the presence of four previously described effectors in host cell nuclei at different time points after bradyzoite differentiation and found that they accumulated largely during the early stages of infection. Despite a decline in nuclear accumulation, we found that one of these effectors still mediated its function after prolonged infection with bradyzoites, and we provide evidence that this effector is exported beyond early infection stages. These findings suggest that effector export from within developing tissue cysts provides one potential mechanism by which this parasite achieves chronic infection.

Toxoplasma gondii: Bradyzoite Differentiation In Vitro and In Vivo.

Toxoplasma gondii, a member of the Apicomplexa, is known for its ability to infect an impressive range of host species. It is a common human infection that causes significant morbidity in congenitally infected children and immunocompromised patients. This parasite can be transmitted by bradyzoites, a slowly replicating life stage found within intracellular tissue cysts, and oocysts, the sexual life cycle stage that develops in domestic cats and other Felidae. T. gondii bradyzoites retain the capacity to revert back to the quickly replicating tachyzoite life stage, and when the host is immune compromised unrestricted replication can lead to significant tissue destruction. Bradyzoites are refractory to currently available Toxoplasma treatments. Improving our understanding of bradyzoite biology is critical for the development of therapeutic strategies to eliminate latent infection. This chapter describes a commonly used protocol for the differentiation of T. gondii tachyzoites into bradyzoites using human foreskin fibroblast cultures and a CO2-limited alkaline cell media, which results in a high proportion of differentiated bradyzoites for further study. Also described are methods for purifying tissue cysts from chronically infected mouse brain using isopycnic centrifugation and a recently developed approach for measuring bradyzoite viability.

MAG2, a Toxoplasma gondii Bradyzoite Stage-Specific Cyst Matrix Protein.

Toxoplasma gondii causes a chronic infection that affects a significant portion of the world's population, and this latent infection is the source of reactivation of toxoplasmosis. An attribute of the slowly growing bradyzoite stage of the parasite is the formation of a cyst within infected cells, allowing the parasite to escape the host's immune response. In this study, a new bradyzoite cyst matrix antigen (MAG) was identified through a hybridoma library screen. This cyst matrix antigen, matrix antigen 2 (MAG2), contains 14 tandem repeats consisting of acidic, basic, and proline residues. Immunoblotting revealed that MAG2 migrates at a level higher than its predicted molecular weight, and computational analysis showed that the structure of MAG2 is highly disordered. Cell fractionation studies indicated that MAG2 was associated with both insoluble and soluble cyst matrix material, suggesting that it interacts with the intracyst network (ICN). Examination of the kinetics of MAG2 within the cyst matrix using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) demonstrated that MAG2 does not readily diffuse within the cyst matrix. Kinetic studies of MAG1 demonstrated that this protein has different diffusion kinetics in tachyzoite and bradyzoite vacuoles and that its mobility is not altered in the absence of MAG2. In addition, deletion of MAG2 does not influence growth, cystogenesis, or cyst morphology.IMPORTANCE This report expands on the list of characterized Toxoplasma gondii cyst matrix proteins. Using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), we have shown that matrix proteins within the cyst matrix are not mainly in a mobile state, providing further evidence of how proteins behave within the cyst matrix. Understanding the proteins expressed during the bradyzoite stage of the parasite reveals how the parasite functions during chronic infection.

The Toxoplasma gondii Cyst Wall Interactome.

A characteristic of the latent cyst stage of Toxoplasma gondii is a thick cyst wall that forms underneath the membrane of the bradyzoite vacuole. Previously, our laboratory group published a proteomic analysis of purified in vitro cyst wall fragments that identified an inventory of cyst wall components. To further refine our understanding of the composition of the cyst wall, several cyst wall proteins were tagged with a promiscuous biotin ligase (BirA*), and their interacting partners were screened by streptavidin affinity purification. Within the cyst wall pulldowns, previously described cyst wall proteins, dense granule proteins, and uncharacterized hypothetical proteins were identified. Several of the newly identified hypothetical proteins were validated to be novel components of the cyst wall and tagged with BirA* to expand the model of the cyst wall interactome. Community detection of the cyst wall interactome model revealed three distinct clusters: a dense granule, a cyst matrix, and a cyst wall cluster. Characterization of several of the identified cyst wall proteins using genetic strategies revealed that MCP3 affects in vivo cyst sizes. This study provides a model of the potential protein interactions within the cyst wall and the groundwork to understand cyst wall formation.IMPORTANCE A model of the cyst wall interactome was constructed using proteins identified through BioID. The proteins within this cyst wall interactome model encompass several proteins identified in a prior characterization of the cyst wall proteome. This model provides a more comprehensive understanding of the composition of the cyst wall and may lead to insights on how the cyst wall is formed.

Enrichment and Proteomic Characterization of the Cyst Wall from In Vitro Toxoplasma gondii Cysts.

The tissue cyst of Toxoplasma gondii, found in latent infection, serves a critical role in both transmission and reactivation of this organism. Within infected cells, slowly replicating parasites (bradyzoites) are surrounded by a cyst matrix, cyst wall, and cyst membrane. The cyst wall is clearly delineated by ultrastructural analysis; however, the composition and function of this layer in host-parasite interactions are not fully understood. In order to understand the composition of the cyst wall, a proteomic analysis of purified cyst wall fragments, that were enriched with Percoll gradients and subsequently immunoprecipitated with CST1 antibody, was performed. Known cyst wall proteins, such as CST1, BPK1, MCP4, MAG1, GRA2, GRA3, and GRA5, were identified in this preparation by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In addition, dense granule proteins (GRAs) not previously shown to associate with the cyst wall, as well as uncharacterized hypothetical proteins, were identified in this cyst wall preparation. Several of these hypothetical cyst wall (CST) proteins were epitope tagged, and immunofluorescence assays confirmed their localization as novel cyst matrix and cyst wall proteins. Expression of two of these newly identified cyst wall proteins was eliminated by gene knockout (CST2-KO and CST3-KO). CST2-KO parasites were highly attenuated in virulence and did not establish detectable cyst burdens. This targeted proteomic approach allowed the identification of new components of the cyst wall that probably have roles in the parasite/host interface.IMPORTANCEToxoplasma gondii is a highly prevalent parasite worldwide that presents life-threatening risks to immunocompromised and pregnant individuals. Whereas the life stage responsible for acute infection can be treated, the life stage responsible for chronic infection is refractory to currently available therapeutics. Little is known about the protein composition of the cyst wall, an amorphous structure formed by parasites that is suspected to facilitate persistence within muscle and nervous tissue during chronic (latent) infection. By implementing a refined approach to selectively purify cyst wall fragments, we identified several known and novel cyst wall proteins from our sample preparations. We confirmed the localizations of several proteins from this data set and identified one that is involved in parasite virulence. These data will propel further studies on cyst wall structure and function, leading to therapeutic strategies that can eliminate the chronic infection stage.

Microsporidia Interact with Host Cell Mitochondria via Voltage-Dependent Anion Channels Using Sporoplasm Surface Protein 1.

Microsporidia are opportunistic intracellular pathogens that can infect a wide variety of hosts ranging from invertebrates to vertebrates. During invasion, the microsporidian polar tube pushes into the host cell, creating a protective microenvironment, the invasion synapse, into which the sporoplasm extrudes. Within the synapse, the sporoplasm then invades the host cell, forming a parasitophorous vacuole (PV). Using a proteomic approach, we identified Encephalitozoon hellem sporoplasm surface protein 1 (EhSSP1), which localized to the surface of extruded sporoplasms. EhSSP1 was also found to interact with polar tube protein 4 (PTP4). Recombinant EhSSP1 (rEhSSP1) bound to human foreskin fibroblasts, and both anti-EhSSP1 and rEhSSP1 caused decreased levels of host cell invasion, suggesting that interaction of SSP1 with the host cell was involved in invasion. Coimmunoprecipitation (Co-IP) followed by proteomic analysis identified host cell voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs) as EhSSP1 interacting proteins. Yeast two-hybrid assays demonstrated that EhSSP1 was able to interact with VDAC1, VDAC2, and VDAC3. rEhSSP1 colocalized with the host mitochondria which were associated with microsporidian PVs in infected cells. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that the outer mitochondrial membrane interacted with meronts and the PV membrane, mitochondria clustered around meronts, and the VDACs were concentrated at the interface of mitochondria and parasite. Knockdown of VDAC1, VDAC2, and VDAC3 in host cells resulted in significant decreases in the number and size of the PVs and a decrease in mitochondrial PV association. The interaction of EhSSP1 with VDAC probably plays an important part in energy acquisition by microsporidia via its role in the association of mitochondria with the PV.IMPORTANCE Microsporidia are important opportunistic human pathogens in immune-suppressed individuals, such as those with HIV/AIDS and recipients of organ transplants. The sporoplasm is critical for establishing microsporidian infection. Despite the biological importance of this structure for transmission, there is limited information about its structure and composition that could be targeted for therapeutic intervention. Here, we identified a novel E. hellem sporoplasm surface protein, EhSSP1, and demonstrated that it can bind to host cell mitochondria via host VDAC. Our data strongly suggest that the interaction between SSP1 and VDAC is important for the association of mitochondria with the parasitophorous vacuole during microsporidian infection. In addition, binding of SSP1 to the host cell is associated with the final steps of invasion in the invasion synapse.