Light microscopic study of four plagiorchiid trematodes infecting marine fish in the south-eastern Mediterranean Sea, Alexandria City, with descriptions of two new species.

During the present investigation, a total of 220 fish specimens belonging to three different species, namely, little tunny Euthynnus alletteratus, African snook Lates niloticus, and striped red mullet Mullus surmuletus, were collected from January-November 2016 from the coasts off Abu Qir landing site, Alexandria City, south-eastern Mediterranean Sea, Egypt. The collected fish samples were dissected and examined for the presence of helminth parasites. Twenty-three out of 220 (10.45%) fish specimens were found to be naturally infected with four species of trematode parasites belonging to three different families of the order Plagiorchiida. The recovered parasite species were collected and identified by applying light microscopic examinations. The present study recorded two new parasite species, namely, Stephanostomum alletterani sp. nov. and Bathycreadium mulli sp. nov., belonging to the families Acanthocolpidae and Opecoelidae and infecting E. alletteratus and M. surmuletus, respectively and re-descriptions of the two remaining species, namely, Acanthostomum spiniceps and Aponurus mulli of the families Acanthostomatidae and Opecoelidae, respectively, to clarify the measurements of some body parts. Morphological and morphometric characterizations revealed some differences between the present species and other related species detected previously. Future studies are recommended to include advanced molecular characteristics for these species.

Morphological Re-Description and 18 S rDNA Sequence Confirmation of the Pinworm Aspiculuris tetraptera (Nematoda, Heteroxynematidae) Infecting the Laboratory Mice Mus musculus.

Aspiculuris tetraptera is a heteroxynematid nematoda infecting most of the laboratory animals, occasionally mice which represent the mostly used animal for biological, medical, and pharmacological studies. The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence of nematode parasites infection in the laboratory mice Mus musculus in Egypt. Morphologically, this oxyurid possessed four distinct cephalic papillae on a cephalic plate, with three small rudimental lips carrying two sessile poorly developed labial papillae and one pair of amphidial pores. Esophagus divided into cylindrical corpus and globular bulb. Distinct cervical alae interrupted at the level of esophago-intestinal junction forming an acute angle. At the caudal end, twelve caudal papillae in male worms while an ovijector apparatus opening and a vulva surrounded by protruded lips in females were observed. The general morphological criteria include this nematode with other Aspiculuris species which were compared in the present study. Molecular characterization based on 18SSU rDNA sequencing performed to confirm the taxonomic position of this species and to documents the morphological data. Sequence alignment detects a percent of identity up to 88.0% with other Heteroxynematidae species. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the present recorded is a putative sister taxon to A. tetraptera recorded in a previous study. The SSU rDNA sequence has been deposited in the GenBank under the accession no. MG019400.

Morphological re-description and phylogenetic relationship of five myxosporean species of the family Myxobolidae infecting Nile tilapia.

Freshwater fish have a major economic and nutritional importance worldwide. Myxosporeans are highly dangerous parasites that infect different fish species, causing severe damage to a large number of economically important species, especially in aquaculture. We conducted a survey of myxosporean parasites infecting Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (Perciformes: Cichlidae) collected from different localities along the River Nile passing through Giza province, Egypt. Out of 100 fish specimens collected, 45 were found to be naturally infected with these parasites in the region of the trunk kidney. Light microscopic examination revealed the presence of 5 distinct myxosporean species belonging to 2 different genera, viz. Myxobolus and Triangula, belonging to the family Myxobolidae; all 5 species have been previously described. Morphological characteristics, host specificity and geographical distribution, tissue tropism, and molecular analysis of the partial sequence of small subunit ribosomal DNA gene revealed that the recovered myxosporean species described herein were genetically distinct from other myxozoan species but had 95% sequence similarity to M. cerebralis. Also, phylogenetic analysis placed the present myxosporean species in the freshwater Myxobolus clade, which is a sister group of freshwater Myxobolus/Henneguya species.

Malaria relapses were already known before 1900-a discussion.

For a long time, only two phases of the life cycle of the agents of malaria parasites were known: the cycle inside the mosquito body and the cycle in the red blood cells of humans as intermediate hosts. A possible tissue development cycle inside humans, however, had already been proposed before 1900. In general, Pieter Klaesz Pel is considered the first scientist who has described such a tissue cycle. However, a closer look at Pel's work shows that he still followed an old (conservative) way of thinking, since he still referred to "malaria poison and malaria miasma." Thus, the first idea of a possible tissue cycle must be searched in the work of earlier scientists. Referring to their observations on malaria, Vassilij Danilevsky, Arman Ruffer, Camillo Golgi and Battista Grassi suspected developing parasites in internal organs, before they can be found in the bloodstream.

Morphological and ultrastructural characteristics of Myxobolus ridibundae n. sp. (Myxosporea: Bivalvulida) infecting the testicular tissue of the marsh frog Rana ridibunda (Amphibia: Ranidae) in Egypt.

Myxozoans are one of the most economically important groups of protozoan parasites causing many serious diseases of their hosts. In the present study, a total of 60 live adult male specimens of the marsh frog Rana ridibunda have been randomly captured during the period of January-December 2015 in different areas at Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate, Egypt and were examined for infection by myxosporidian parasites. A total of 48 (80.0 %) out of 60 frog specimens were found to be infected with Myxobolus species. Parasitic infection was restricted to the testicular tissue of the examined frogs. Macroscopic cysts (plasmodia) which heavily infested different parts of the testes were recovered. Morphological and ultrastructural characteristics of these myxosporidian species were carried out using light and transmission electron microscopy. Plasmodia measured 0.16-0.53 (0.34 ± 0.01) mm in diameter. Mature spores appeared oval in frontal view, measuring 8.9-11.5 (9.6 ± 0.1) µm in length and 7.5-9.1 (8.4 ± 0.1) µm in width containing 5-6 turns of polar filaments. Morphometric characterization revealed that the very small size of the present Myxobolus species was the most distinctive feature that separates them from all previously described Myxobolus species. Ultrastructural analysis showed that the plasmodia are surrounded by a plasma membrane with numerous pinocytotic protrusions extending toward the host cell. The generative cells and the different developmental stages are arranged at the periphery of the plasmodia, while immature and mature spores are centrally located. Sporogenesis, capsulogenesis, valvogenesis, and spore maturation of the present parasite are also described. The present species is described as Myxobolus ridibundae and represents a new species.

Declining malaria, rising of dengue and Zika virus: insights for mosquito vector control.

The fight against mosquito-borne diseases is a challenge of huge public health importance. To our mind, 2015 was an extraordinary year for malaria control, due to three hot news: the Nobel Prize to Youyou Tu for the discovery of artemisinin, the development of the first vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum malaria [i.e. RTS,S/AS01 (RTS,S)], and the fall of malaria infection rates worldwide, with special reference to sub-Saharan Africa. However, there are major challenges that still deserve attention, in order to boost malaria prevention and control. Indeed, parasite strains resistant to artemisinin have been detected, and RTS,S vaccine does not offer protection against Plasmodium vivax malaria, which predominates in many countries outside of Africa. Furthermore, the recent outbreaks of Zika virus infections, occurring in South America, Central America and the Caribbean, represent the most recent of four arrivals of important arboviruses in the Western Hemisphere, over the last 20 years. Zika virus follows dengue (which slyly arrived in the hemisphere over decades and became more aggressive in the 1990s), West Nile virus (emerged in 1999) and chikungunya (emerged in 2013). Notably, there are no specific treatments for these arboviruses. The emerging scenario highlights that the effective and eco-friendly control of mosquito vectors, with special reference to highly invasive species such as Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, is crucial. The concrete potential of screening plant species as sources of metabolites for parasitological purposes is worthy of attention, as elucidated by the Y. Tu's example. Notably, plant-borne molecules are often effective at few parts per million against Aedes, Ochlerotatus, Anopheles and Culex young instars, can be used for the rapid synthesis of mosquitocidal nanoformulations and even employed to prepare cheap repellents with low human toxicity. In addition, behaviour-based control tools relying to the employ of sound traps and the manipulation of swarming behaviour (i.e. "lure and kill" approach) are discussed. The importance of further research on the chemical cues routing mosquito swarming and mating dynamics is highlighted. Besides radiation, transgenic and symbiont-based mosquito control approaches, an effective option may be the employ of biological control agents of mosquito young instars, in the presence of ultra-low quantities of nanoformulated botanicals, which boost their predation rates.

Henneguya collaris sp. nov., (Myxosporidia), parasite of the Greenband Parrotfish Scarus collana Rüppell, 1835 (Actinopterygii, Scaridae) from the Red Sea, Egypt. A light and electron microscopic study.

The phylum Myxozoa comprises more than 2180 species, almost all of which are considered to be obligate parasites of aquatic fishes. In the present study, Henneguya collaris sp. nov. is the first described histozoic myxozoan species of the genus Henneguya infecting the kidney of the greenband parrotfish Scarus collana (Actinopterygii, Scaridae). One hundred and eighty specimens of fish were collected randomly during the period from September 2014 to October 2015 from boat landing sites and the market places at Hurghada City along the Red Sea in Egypt. Of these, 90 (50 %) specimens were infected. Light microscopic examination showed that the infection was detected as mature spores with two polar capsules regularly arranged at the anterior pole of each spore and extruded polar filaments free in the kidney tissue. The spore body was oval in shape, measured 7.1 ± 0.2 (6.2-8.4) µm in length and 6.3 ± 0.2 (5.8-7.0) µm in width, with a bifurcated caudal process of equal length, reaching 6.3 ± 0.2 (5.8-7.0) µm in length. Polar capsules were 3.4 ± 0.2 (3.0-4.2) µm in length and 1.9 ± 0.2 (1.6-2.4) µm in width with 6-8 (10) turns of polar filaments. Ultrastructural analysis showed that the spore development was asynchronous. Sporogenesis, capsulogensis, valvogenesis, and spore maturation of the present parasite were also described. The present species was compared morphologically with the spore characteristics of the most similar species of Henneguya spp. recorded previously from different geographical areas taking into account the stage and dimensions of the spore body, tails, and polar filament coils, including their number and the most important characteristic features that distinguish them from the present species. Considering the data obtained, the material described herein represents a new species and the name Henneguya collaris sp. nov. is proposed.

Tick repellents and acaricides of botanical origin: a green roadmap to control tick-borne diseases?

Arthropods are dangerous vectors of agents of deadly diseases, which may hit as epidemics or pandemics in the increasing world population of humans and animals. Among them, ticks transmit more pathogen species than any other group of blood-feeding arthropods worldwide. Thus, the effective and eco-friendly control of tick vectors in a constantly changing environment is a crucial challenge. A number of novel routes have been attempted to prevent and control tick-borne diseases, including the development of (i) vaccines against viruses vectored by ticks; (ii) pheromone-based control tools, with special reference to the "lure and kill" techniques; (iii) biological control programmes relying on ticks' natural enemies and pathogens; and (iv) the integrated pest management practices aimed at reducing tick interactions with livestock. However, the extensive employment of acaricides and tick repellents still remains the two most effective and ready-to-use strategies. Unfortunately, the first one is limited by the rapid development of resistance in ticks, as well as by serious environmental concerns. On the other hand, the exploitation of plants as sources of effective tick repellents is often promising. Here, we reviewed current knowledge concerning the effectiveness of plant extracts as acaricides or repellents against tick vectors of public health importance, with special reference to Ixodes ricinus, Ixodes persulcatus, Amblyomma cajennense, Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Haemaphysalis longicornis, Hyalomma anatolicum, Hyalomma marginatum rufipes, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, Rhipicephalus pulchellus, Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Rhipicephalus turanicus. Eighty-three plant species from 35 botanical families were selected. The most frequent botanical families exploited as sources of acaricides and repellents against ticks were Asteraceae (15 % of the selected studies), Fabaceae (9 %), Lamiaceae (10 %), Meliaceae (5 %), Solanaceae (6 %) and Verbenaceae (5 %). Regression equation analyses showed that the literature grew by approximately 20 % per year (period: 2005-2015). Lastly, in the final section, insights for future research are discussed. We focused on some caveats for future data collection and analysis. Current critical points mainly deal with (a) not uniform methods used, which prevent proper comparison of the results; (b) inaccurate tested concentrations, frequently 100 % concentration corresponded to the gross extract, where the exact amounts of extracted substances are unknown; and (c) not homogeneous size of tested tick instars and species. Overall, the knowledge summarized in this review may be helpful for comparative screening among extensive numbers of plant-borne preparations, in order to develop newer and safer tick control tools.

Tick survey for prevalent pathogens in peri-urban recreation sites in Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate (Germany).

Ixodid ticks are important vectors of human pathogens in Central Europe. Despite this fact, prevalence studies are scarce, especially with regard to much-frequented peri-urban recreation sites. In this pilot study, 4.014 larvae, nymphs and adult ticks sampled monthly during the active seasons in 2011 and 2012 from 14 distinct collection sites in two German states (Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate) were screened for Borrelia spp., Anaplasma spp. and tick-borne encephalitis virus. Mean prevalence rates were 19.8 % for Borrelia spp., 1.9 % for Anaplasma spp. and 0.1 % for tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), which are in accordance with those reported from other regions in Germany and neighbouring countries. Nevertheless, the detection of TBEV-infected ticks is the first positive result after several unsuccessful efforts over the previous years in official "TBE-risk" zones of Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate which supports the presumption of the origin of observed local infection. Besides ixodid ticks a non-engorged adult female tick of the invading species Dermacentor reticulatus has been found reflecting the appearance of another vector eventually jeopardising the health of host animals as well as humans.

Mosquito vectors and the spread of cancer: an overlooked connection?

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) represent a key threat for millions of humans and animals worldwide, vectoring important pathogens and parasites, including malaria, dengue, filariasis, and Zika virus. Besides mosquito-borne diseases, cancers figure among the leading causes of mortality worldwide. It is expected that annual cancer cases will rise from 14 million in 2012 to 22 million within the next two decades. Notably, there are few contrasting evidences of the relationship between cancer and mosquito-borne diseases, with special reference to malaria. However, analogies at the cellular level for the two diseases were reported. Recently, a significant association of malaria incidence with all cancer mortality in 50 USA states was highlighted and may be explained by the ability of Plasmodium to induce suppression of the immune system. However, it was hypothesized that Anopheles vectors may transmit obscure viruses linked with cancer development. The possible activation of cancer pathways by mosquito feeding events is not rare. For instance, the hamster reticulum cell sarcoma can be transmitted through the bites of Aedes aegypti by a transfer of tumor cells. Furthermore, mosquito bites may influence human metabolic pathways following different mechanisms, leading to other viral infections and/or oncogenesis. Hypersensitivity to mosquito bites is routed by a unique pathogenic mechanism linking Epstein-Barr virus infection, allergy, and oncogenesis. During dengue virus infection, high viral titers, macrophage infiltration, and tumor necrosis factor alpha production in the local tissues are the three key important events that lead to hemorrhage. Overall, basic epidemiological knowledge on the relationships occurring between mosquito vector activity and the spread of cancer is urgently needed, as well as detailed information about the ability of Culicidae to transfer viruses or tumor cells among hosts over time. Current evidences on nanodrugs with multipotency against mosquito-borne diseases and cancers are reviewed, with peculiar attention to their mechanisms of action.

Clinical implications of a gradual dormancy concept in malaria.

Malaria recurrences after an initially successful therapy and malarial fever occurring a long time after infection are well-known problems in malariology. Currently, two distinct types of malaria recurrences are defined: recrudescence and relapse. A recrudescence is thought to originate from circulating Plasmodium blood stages which do not cause fever before a certain level of a microscopically detectable parasitemia is reached. Contrary, a relapse is thought to originate from quiescent intracellular hepatic parasite stages called hypnozoites. Recrudescences would typically occur in infections due to Plasmodium falciparum. Plasmodium knowlesi, and Plasmodium malariae, whereas relapses would be caused exclusively by Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale. This schematic view is, however, insufficiently supported by experimental evidence. For instance, hypnozoites of P. ovale have never been experimentally documented. On the other hand, the nonfinding of P. malariae hypnozoites turned into the proof for the nonexistence of P. malariae hypnozoites. Clinical relapse-type recurrences have been observed in both P. ovale and P. malariae infections, and decade-long incubation times have also been reported in P. falciparum infections. We propose a gradual hypothesis in accordance with the continuity concept of biological evolution: both, relapse and recrudescence may be potentially caused by all Plasmodium spp. We hypothesize that the difference between the various Plasmodium spp. is quantitative rather than qualitative: there are Plasmodium spp. which frequently cause relapses such as P. vivax, particularly the P.v. Chesson strain, species which cause relapses less frequently, such as P. ovale and sometimes P. malariae, and species which may exceptionally cause relapses such as P. falciparum. All species may cause recrudescences. As clinical consequences, we propose that 8-aminquinolines may be considered in a relapse-type recrudescence regardless of the causal Plasmodium sp., whereas primaquine relapse prevention might not be routinely indicated in malaria due to P. ovale.

Morphological re-description and molecular characterization of Kudoa pagrusi (Myxosporea: Multivalvulida) infecting the heart muscles of the common sea bream fish Pagrus pagrus (Perciformes: Sparidae) from the Red Sea, Egypt.

In the present study, 100 samples of different sizes of the common sea bream fish Pagrus pagrus were collected from the Egyptian water along the Gulf of Suez, Red Sea and examined for the prevalence of myxosporidian parasites in general and Kudoa spp. in particular. Fish samples were thoroughly externally examined. After dissection, all the internal organs were removed and examined. A total of 60 out of 100 fish specimens were found to be infected with Kudoa stages. Parasitic infection was restricted to the heart muscles of the examined fish. None of the other organs was found to be infected. Macroscopic cysts (plasmodia) heavily infested the different parts of the heart muscles. Each plasmodium measured 1.2-2.5 (1.53 ± 0.2) mm × 0.63-0.80 (0.65 ± 0.2) mm. Mature spores are quadratic in shape in the apical view showing four equal valves and four symmetrical polar capsules. Fresh spores were 5.0-7.1 (5.7 ± 0.2) µm long × 5.4-8.5 (6.1 ± 0.3) µm wide. On the basis of spore morphology, the present species was identified as Kudoa pagrusi. Morphometric characterization revealed that the relatively small size of this Kudoa species was the distinctive feature that separates it from all previously described species. Molecular analysis based on small subunit ribosomal DNA (SSU rDNA) sequences revealed that the highest percentage of identity was observed with K. scomberomori and followed by K. shiomitsui, K. hypoepicarclialis, K. amamiensis, and K. kenti. The kudoid spores showed morphometric variations to some extents but had essentially identical nucleotide sequences of the SSU rDNA gene sequences closest to those of K. scomberomori and K. shiomitsui recorded from elasmobranchs in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. The present findings support the identification of an ancestral marine origin of the present Kudoa species.

Novel synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Bauhinia variegata: a recent eco-friendly approach for mosquito control.

Mosquito vectors are responsible for transmitting diseases such as malaria, dengue, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, dengue, and lymphatic filariasis. The use of synthetic insecticides to control mosquito vectors has caused physiological resistance and adverse environmental effects, in addition to high operational cost. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles has been proposed as an alternative to traditional control tools. In the present study, green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using aqueous leaf extract of Bauhinia variegata by reduction of Ag(+) ions from silver nitrate solution has been investigated. The bioreduced silver nanoparticles were characterized by UV­visible spectrophotometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). Leaf extract and synthesized AgNPs were evaluated against the larvae of Anopheles subpictus, Aedes albopictus, and Culex tritaeniorhynchus. Compared to aqueous extract, synthesized AgNPs showed higher toxicity against An. subpictus, Ae. albopictus, and Cx. tritaeniorhynchus with LC50 and LC90 values of 41.96, 46.16, and 51.92 µg/mL and 82.93, 89.42, and 97.12 µg/mL, respectively. Overall, this study proves that B. variegata is a potential bioresource for stable, reproducible nanoparticle synthesis and may be proposed as an efficient mosquito control agent.

Modeling the habitat suitability for the arbovirus vector Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Germany.

Climatic changes raise the risk of re-emergence of arthropod-borne virus outbreaks globally. These viruses are transmitted by arthropod vectors, often mosquitoes. Due to increasing worldwide trade and tourism, these vector species are often accidentally introduced into many countries beyond their former distribution range. Aedes albopictus, a well-known disease vector, was detected for the first time in Germany in 2007, but seems to have failed establishment until today. However, the species is known to occur in other temperate regions and a risk for establishment in Germany remains, especially in the face of predicted climate change. Thus, the goal of the study was to estimate the potential distribution of Ae. albopictus in Germany. We used ecological niche modeling in order to estimate the potential habitat suitability for this species under current and projected future climatic conditions. According to our model, there are already two areas in western and southern Germany that appear suitable for Ae. albopictus under current climatic conditions. One of these areas lies in Baden-Wuerttemberg, the other in North-Rhine Westphalia in the Ruhr region. Furthermore, projections under future climatic conditions show an increase of the modeled habitat suitability throughout Germany. Ae. albopictus is supposed to be better acclimated to colder temperatures than other tropical vectors and thus, might become, triggered by climate change, a serious threat to public health in Germany. Our modeling results can help optimizing the design of monitoring programs currently in place in Germany.

Discovery of microchannels in host tissues surrounding hydatid cysts.

The present study shows for the first time long, tiny microchannels starting from the surface of a Echinococcus granulosus hydatid and running through the laminated layer and the pericyst into the healthy tissue. It is, however, not clear, whether these channels are persistent or only formed for a short period and whatever function they fulfill.

Length of tick repellency depends on formulation of the repellent compound (icaridin = Saltidin®): tests on Ixodes persulcatus and Ixodes ricinus placed on hands and clothes.

The present study had the aim to test the repellent potential of the compound icaridin = Saltidin® against the tick species Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus using different formulations of the compound. Tests were done on backs of impregnated human hands, on impregnated linen cloth and versus impregnated dog hair. It was found that 1. Ixodes persulcatus-the common Eastern European, Russian Ixodes species is significantly sensitive to icaridin = Saltidin® as I. ricinus protecting for the test period of 5 h. This is an important finding, since I. persulcatus is the vector of agents of the severe Eastern meningoencephalitis; 2. that this repellent compound acts similarly on both I. ricinus and I. persulcatus, when sprayed either on naked skin or on cloths; 3. that there are only slight differences in duration of the repellency when using different formulations containing icaridin = Saltidin®; 4. that icaridin = Saltidin® sprayed on dog hair has identical repellent effects like those seen on human skin and cloths; thus, this compound can also be used to protect animals such as dogs, cats, horses; and 5. that the icaridin = Saltidin® did not induce a bad sensation on skin, nor bad smells; furthermore, it was not sticky and did not leave residuals neither on clothes nor on dog's hair.

Head louse control by suffocation due to blocking their oxygen uptake.

The present study shows that head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) are killed by suffocation when submersed into the anti-louse shampoo Licener®, which contains a mild shampoo component and an extract of neem seeds after their oil components had been pressed off. It is shown that the inner tracheal system becomes completely filled by the very fluid product. Within 3-10 min, oxygen uptake is prohibited and death of all thus treated lice stages occurred.

Testicular myxosporidiasis and ultrastructural characteristics of Myxobolus bufonis (Myxobolidae) infecting the Egyptian toad Bufo regularis (Bufonidae). A light and electron microscopic study.

The phylum Myxozoa comprises more than 2180 species, almost all of which are considered to be obligate parasites of aquatic fishes and amphibians. They are dangerous pathogens responsible for severe economic losses. From March to September 2014, 40 adult male Bufo regularis (Bufonidae) captured from different areas at Giza province, Egypt, were surveyed for myxosporean parasitic infection. Of these, 22 (55%) were infected by histozoic plasmodia, which produced spores after rupture belonging to Myxosporidia. The present investigation introduced a new data for the recorded parasite observed by light and transmission electron microscopy. The infection was diagnosed as large clusters of macroscopic plasmodia embedded in the testicular tissue causing distortion at the site of infection. The host reaction was manifested by the encapsulation of the plasmodia with a thick layer of connective tissue. Plasmodia were whitish in color, elliptical to ovoid in shape measuring 0.54 ± 0.2 (0.34-0.63) mm in diameter. The spores were subspherical, reaching 7.1 ± 0.2 (6.2-8.4) µm in length and 6.3 ± 0.2 (5.8-7.0) µm in width with two equal-sized polar capsules regularly arranged at the anterior pole of each spore. They were 3.4 ± 0.2 (3.0-4.2) µm in length and 1.9 ± 0.2 (1.6-2.4) in width with 6-8 turns of polar filaments. Ultrastructural analysis showed that the plasmodia were surrounded by a plasma membrane with numerous projections and pinocytotic channels extended toward the host cell. The generative cells and the different developmental stages were arranged at the periphery of the plasmodia while immature and mature spores were centrally arranged. Sporogenesis, capsulogenesis, valvogenesis, and spore maturation of the present parasite were also described.

Together in the fight against neglected public health problems: worldwide network cooperation on waterborne diseases and emerging parasitic diseases.

A symposium held in Guangzhou, China, aimed to become starting point of an international cooperation in the fight against waterborne diseases, which obtain more and more importance in times of global warming and globalization.