RB1 loss induces quiescent state through downregulation of RAS signaling in mammary epithelial cells.

While loss of function (LOF) of retinoblastoma 1 (RB1) tumor suppressor is known to drive initiation of small-cell lung cancer and retinoblastoma, RB1 mutation is rarely observed in breast cancers at their initiation. In this study, we investigated the impact on untransformed mammary epithelial cells given by RB1 LOF. Depletion of RB1 in anon-tumorigenic MCF10A cells induced reversible growth arrest (quiescence) featured by downregulation of multiple cyclins and MYC, upregulation of p27KIP1, and lack of expression of markers which indicate cellular senescence or epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). We observed a similar phenomenon in human mammary epithelial cells (HMEC) as well. Additionally, we found that RB1 depletion attenuated the activity of RAS and the downstream MAPK pathway in an RBL2/p130-dependent manner. The expression of farnesyltransferase ß, which is essential for RAS maturation, was found to be downregulated following RB1 depletion also in an RBL2/p130-dependent manner. These findings unveiled an unexpected mechanism whereby normal mammary epithelial cells resist to tumor initiation upon RB1 LOF.

RECK/GPR124-driven WNT signaling in pancreatic and gastric cancer cells.

RECK has been described to modulate extracellular matrix components through negative regulation of MMP activities. Recently, RECK was demonstrated to bind to an orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR124 to mediate WNT7 signaling in nontumor contexts. Here, we attempted to clarify the role of RECK in driving WNT signaling in cancer cells. RECK and GPR124 formed a complex in 293T cells, and when both were expressed, WNT signaling was significantly enhanced in a WNT7-dependent manner. This cooperation was abolished when RECK mutants unable to bind to GPR124 were transduced. RECK stimulated the growth of KRAS-mutated pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells with increased sensitivity to WNT inhibitor in a GPR124-dependent manner. A gastric cancer cell line SH10TC endogenously expresses both RECK and GPR124 under regular culture conditions. In this cell line, inhibited cell growth and WNT signaling as well as increased apoptosis in the GPR124 depletion was dominantly found over those in the RECK deletion. These findings suggest that RECK promotes tumor cell growth by positively modulating WNT signaling through GPR124. This study proposes that the RECK/GPR124 complex might be a good therapeutic target in PDAC and gastric cancer.

Zebrafish-Based Screening Models for the Identification of Anti-Metastatic Drugs.

Metastasis, a leading contributor to the morbidity of cancer patients, occurs through a multi-step process: invasion, intravasation, extravasation, colonization, and metastatic tumor formation. Each process is not only promoted by cancer cells themselves but is also affected by their microenvironment. Given this complexity, drug discovery for anti-metastatic drugs must consider the interaction between cancer cells and their microenvironments. The zebrafish is a suitable vertebrate animal model for in vivo high-throughput screening studies with physiological relevance to humans. This review covers the zebrafish model used to identify anti-metastatic drugs.

Breast cancer metastasis: issues for the personalization of its prevention and treatment.

Despite important progress in adjuvant and neoadjuvant therapies, metastatic disease often develops in breast cancer patients and remains the leading cause of their deaths. For patients with established metastatic disease, therapy is palliative, with few breaks and with mounting adverse effects. Many have hypothesized that a personalized or precision approach (the terms are used interchangeably) to cancer therapy, in which treatment is based on the individual characteristics of each patient, will provide better outcomes. Here, we discuss the molecular basis of breast cancer metastasis and the challenges in personalization of treatment. The instability of metastatic tumors remains a leading obstacle to personalization, because information from a patient's primary tumor may not accurately reflect the metastasis, and one metastasis may vary from another. Furthermore, the variable presence of tumor subpopulations, such as stem cells and dormant cells, may increase the complexity of the targeted treatments needed. Although molecular signatures and circulating biomarkers have been identified in breast cancer, there is lack of validated predictive molecular markers to optimize treatment choices for either prevention or treatment of metastatic disease. Finally, to maximize the information that can be obtained, increased attention to clinical trial design in the metastasis preventive setting is needed.

Insights into the biology and prevention of tumor metastasis provided by the Nm23 metastasis suppressor gene.

Metastatic disease is the major cause of death among cancer patients. A class of genes, named metastasis suppressors, has been described to specifically regulate the metastatic process. The metastasis suppressor genes are downregulated in the metastatic lesion compared to the primary tumor. In this review, we describe the body of research surrounding the first metastasis suppressor identified, Nm23. Nm23 overexpression in aggressive cancer cell lines reduced their metastatic potential in vivo with no significant reduction in primary tumor size. A complex mechanism of anti-metastatic action is unfolding involving several known Nm23 enzymatic activities (nucleotide diphosphate kinase, histidine kinase, and 3'-5' exonuclease), protein-protein interactions, and downstream gene regulation properties. Translational approaches involving Nm23 have progressed to the clinic. The upregulation of Nm23 expression by medroxyprogesterone acetate has been tested in a phase II trial. Other approaches with significant preclinical success include gene therapy using traditional or nanoparticle delivery, and cell permeable Nm23 protein. Recently, based on the inverse correlation of Nm23 and LPA1 expression, a LPA1 inhibitor has been shown to both inhibit metastasis and induce metastatic dormancy.

In vivo Drug Screening to Identify Anti-metastatic Drugs in Twist1a-ERT2 Transgenic Zebrafish.

Here, we present an in vivo drug screening protocol using a zebrafish model of metastasis for the identification of anti-metastatic drugs. A tamoxifen-controllable Twist1a-ERT2 transgenic zebrafish line was established to serve as a platform for the identification. By crossing Twist1a-ERT2 with xmrk (a homolog of hyperactive form of the epidermal growth factor receptor) transgenic zebrafish, which develop hepatocellular carcinoma, approximately 80% of the double transgenic zebrafish show spontaneous cell dissemination of mCherry-labeled hepatocytes from the liver to the entire abdomen and tail regions in five days, through induction of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). This rapid and high-frequency induction of cell dissemination makes it possible to perform an in vivo drug screen for the identification of anti-metastatic drugs targeting metastatic dissemination of cancer cells. The protocol evaluates the suppressor effect of a test drug on metastasis in five days, by comparing the frequencies of the fish showing abdominal and distant dissemination patterns in the test drug-treated group with those in the vehicle-treated group. Our study previously identified that adrenosterone, an inhibitor for hydroxysteroid (11-beta) dehydrogenase 1 (HSD11ß1), has a suppressor effect on cell dissemination in the model. Furthermore, we validated that a pharmacologic and genetic inhibition of HSD11ß1 suppressed metastatic dissemination of highly metastatic human cell lines in a zebrafish xenotransplantation model. Taken together, this protocol opens new routes for the identification of anti-metastatic drugs. Graphical overview Timing Day 0: Zebrafish spawning Day 8: Primary tumor induction Day 11: Chemical treatment Day 11.5: Metastatic dissemination induction in the presence of a test chemical Day 16: Data analysis.

Gastrulation Screening to Identify Anti-metastasis Drugs in Zebrafish Embryos.

Few models exist that allow for rapid and effective screening of anti-metastasis drugs. Here, we present a drug screening protocol utilizing gastrulation of zebrafish embryos for identification of anti-metastasis drugs. Based on the evidence that metastasis proceeds through utilizing the molecular mechanisms of gastrulation, we hypothesized that chemicals interrupting zebrafish gastrulation might suppress the metastasis of cancer cells. Thus, we developed a phenotype-based chemical screen that uses epiboly, the first morphogenetic movement in gastrulation, as a marker. The screen only needs zebrafish embryos and enables hundreds of chemicals to be tested in five hours by observing the epiboly progression of chemical-treated embryos. In the screen, embryos at the two-cell stage are firstly corrected and then developed to the sphere stage. The embryos are treated with a test chemical and incubated in the presence of the chemical until vehicle-treated embryos develop to the 90% epiboly stage. Finally, positive 'hit' chemicals that interrupt epiboly progression are selected by comparing epiboly progression of the chemical-treated and vehicle-treated embryos under a stereoscopic microscope. A previous study subjected 1,280 FDA-approved drugs to the screen and identified adrenosterone and pizotifen as epiboly-interrupting drugs. These were validated to suppress metastasis of breast cancer cells in mice models of metastasis. Furthermore, 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 (HSD11ß1) and serotonin receptor 2C (HTR2C), the primary targets of adrenosterone and pizotifen, respectively, promoted metastasis through induction of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Therefore, this screen could be converted into a chemical genetic screening platform for identification of metastasis-promoting genes. Graphical abstract.

Cinnamon bark extract suppresses metastatic dissemination of cancer cells through inhibition of glycolytic metabolism.

Metastasis is responsible for approximately 90% of cancer-associated mortality and proceeds through multiple steps. Several herbal medicines are reported to inhibit primary tumor growth, but the suppressor effects of the medicines on metastasis progression are still not fully elucidated. Here we report that cinnamon bark extract (CBE) has a suppressor effect on metastatic dissemination of cancer cells. Through a phenotypic screening using zebrafish embryos, CBE was identified to interfere with the gastrulation progression of zebrafish embryos, of which the molecular mechanisms are conserved in metastasis progression. A Boyden chamber assay showed that CBE decreased cell motility and invasion of MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells without affecting their cell viability. Furthermore, CBE suppressed metastatic dissemination of the cells in a zebrafish xenotransplantation model. Quantitative metabolome analyses revealed that the productions of glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) and fructose 6-phosphate which are intermediate metabolites of glycolytic metabolism were interrupted in CBE-treated cells. qPCR and western-blotting analyses revealed that CBE-treated cells showed decreased expression of hexokinase 2 (HK2) which yields G6P. Pharmacological inhibition of HK2 with 2-deoxy-D-glucose suppressed cell invasion and migration of the cells without affecting their cell viability. Taken together, CBE suppresses metastatic dissemination of cancer cells through inhibition of glycolysis metabolism.

BLNK suppresses pre-B-cell leukemogenesis through inhibition of JAK3.

Pre-B-cell leukemia spontaneously develops in BLNK-deficient mice, and pre-B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells in children often lack BLNK protein expression, demonstrating that BLNK functions as a tumor suppressor. However, the mechanism by which BLNK suppresses pre-B-cell leukemia, as well as the identification of other genetic alterations that collaborate with BLNK deficiency to cause leukemogenesis, are still unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the JAK3/STAT5 signaling pathway is constitutively activated in pre-B leukemia cells derived from BLNK(-/-) mice, mostly due to autocrine production of IL-7. Inhibition of IL-7R signaling or JAK3/STAT5 activity resulted in the induction of p27(kip1) expression and cell-cycle arrest, accompanied by apoptosis in the leukemia cells. Transgene-derived constitutively active STAT5 (STAT5b-CA) strongly synergized with the loss of BLNK to initiate leukemia in vivo. In the leukemia cells, exogenously expressed BLNK inhibited autocrine JAK3/STAT5 signaling, resulting in p27(kip1) induction, cell-cycle arrest, and apoptosis. BLNK-inhibition of JAK3 was dependent on the binding of BLNK to JAK3. These data indicate that BLNK normally regulates IL-7-dependent proliferation and survival of pre-B cells through direct inhibition of JAK3. Thus, somatic loss of BLNK and concomitant mutations leading to constitutive activation of Jak/STAT5 pathway result in the generation of pre-B-cell leukemia.

De novo deoxyribonucleotide biosynthesis regulates cell growth and tumor progression in small-cell lung carcinoma.

Deoxyribonucleotide biosynthesis from ribonucleotides supports the growth of active cancer cells by producing building blocks for DNA. Although ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) is known to catalyze the rate-limiting step of de novo deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) synthesis, the biological function of the RNR large subunit (RRM1) in small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) remains unclear. In this study, we established siRNA-transfected SCLC cell lines to investigate the anticancer effect of silencing RRM1 gene expression. We found that RRM1 is required for the full growth of SCLC cells both in vitro and in vivo. In particular, the deletion of RRM1 induced a DNA damage response in SCLC cells and decreased the number of cells with S phase cell cycle arrest. We also elucidated the overall changes in the metabolic profile of SCLC cells caused by RRM1 deletion. Together, our findings reveal a relationship between the deoxyribonucleotide biosynthesis axis and key metabolic changes in SCLC, which may indicate a possible link between tumor growth and the regulation of deoxyribonucleotide metabolism in SCLC.

A zebrafish embryo screen utilizing gastrulation identifies the HTR2C inhibitor pizotifen as a suppressor of EMT-mediated metastasis.

Metastasis is responsible for approximately 90% of cancer-associated mortality but few models exist that allow for rapid and effective screening of anti-metastasis drugs. Current mouse models of metastasis are too expensive and time consuming to use for rapid and high-throughput screening. Therefore, we created a unique screening concept utilizing conserved mechanisms between zebrafish gastrulation and cancer metastasis for identification of potential anti-metastatic drugs. We hypothesized that small chemicals that interrupt zebrafish gastrulation might also suppress metastatic progression of cancer cells and developed a phenotype-based chemical screen to test the hypothesis. The screen used epiboly, the first morphogenetic movement in gastrulation, as a marker and enabled 100 chemicals to be tested in 5 hr. The screen tested 1280 FDA-approved drugs and identified pizotifen, an antagonist for serotonin receptor 2C (HTR2C) as an epiboly-interrupting drug. Pharmacological and genetic inhibition of HTR2C suppressed metastatic progression in a mouse model. Blocking HTR2C with pizotifen restored epithelial properties to metastatic cells through inhibition of Wnt signaling. In contrast, HTR2C induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition through activation of Wnt signaling and promoted metastatic dissemination of human cancer cells in a zebrafish xenotransplantation model. Taken together, our concept offers a novel platform for discovery of anti-metastasis drugs.

Transgenic zebrafish for modeling hepatocellular carcinoma.

Liver cancer is the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths throughout the world, and more than 0.6 million people die from liver cancer annually. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies to eliminate malignant cells from liver cancer patients are urgently needed. Recent advances in high-throughput genomic technologies have identified de novo candidates for oncogenes and pharmacological targets. However, testing and understanding the mechanism of oncogenic transformation as well as probing the kinetics and therapeutic responses of spontaneous tumors in an intact microenvironment require in vivo examination using genetically modified animal models. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has attracted increasing attention as a new model for studying cancer biology since the organs in the model are strikingly similar to human organs and the model can be genetically modified in a short time and at a low cost. This review summarizes the current knowledge of epidemiological data and genetic alterations in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), zebrafish models of HCC, and potential therapeutic strategies for targeting HCC based on knowledge from the models.

A Novel Zebrafish Model of Metastasis Identifies the HSD11ß1 Inhibitor Adrenosterone as a Suppressor of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Metastatic Dissemination.

Metastasis of cancer cells is multi-step process and dissemination is an initial step. Here we report a tamoxifen-controllable Twist1a-ERT2 transgenic zebrafish line as a new animal model for metastasis research, and demonstrate that this model can serve as a novel platform for discovery of antimetastasis drugs targeting metastatic dissemination of cancer cells. By crossing Twist1a-ERT2 with xmrk (a homolog of hyperactive form of EGFR) transgenic zebrafish, which develops hepatocellular carcinoma, approximately 80% of the double transgenic zebrafish showed spontaneous cell dissemination of mCherry-labeled hepatocytes from the liver to the entire abdomen region and the tail region. The dissemination is accomplished in 5 days through induction of an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Using this model, we conducted in vivo drug screening and identified three hit drugs. One of them, adrenosterone, an inhibitor for hydroxysteroid (11-beta) dehydrogenase 1 (HSD11ß1), has a suppressor effect on cell dissemination in this model. Pharmacologic and genetic inhibition of HSD11ß1 suppressed metastatic dissemination of highly metastatic human cell lines in a zebrafish xenotransplantation model. Through downregulation of Snail and Slug, adrenosterone-treated cells recovered expression of E-cadherin and other epithelial markers and lost partial expression of mesenchymal markers compared with vehicle-treated cells. Taken together, our model offers a useful platform for the discovery of antimetastasis drugs targeting metastatic dissemination of cancer cells. IMPLICATIONS: This study describes a transgenic zebrafish model for liver tumor metastasis and it has been successfully used for identification of some drugs to inhibit metastatic dissemination of human cancer cells.

Metabolic Characterization of Antifolate Responsiveness and Non-responsiveness in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma Cells.

Antifolates are a class of drugs effective for treating malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM). The majority of antifolates inhibit enzymes involved in purine and pyrimidine synthesis such as dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), thymidylate synthase (TYMS), and glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase (GART). In order to select the most suitable patients for effective therapy with drugs targeting specific metabolic pathways, there is a need for better predictive metabolic biomarkers. Antifolates can alter global metabolic pathways in MPM cells, yet the metabolic profile of treated cells has not yet been clearly elucidated. Here we found that MPM cell lines could be categorized into two groups according to their sensitivity or resistance to pemetrexed treatment. We show that pemetrexed susceptibility could be reversed and DNA synthesis rescued in drug-treated cells by the exogenous addition of the nucleotide precursors hypoxanthine and thymidine (HT). We observed that the expression of pemetrexed-targeted enzymes in resistant MPM cells was quantitatively lower than that seen in pemetrexed-sensitive cells. Metabolomic analysis revealed that glycine and choline, which are involved in one-carbon metabolism, were altered after drug treatment in pemetrexed-sensitive but not resistant MPM cells. The addition of HT upregulated the concentration of inosine monophosphate (IMP) in pemetrexed-sensitive MPM cells, indicating that the nucleic acid biosynthesis pathway is important for predicting the efficacy of pemetrexed in MPM cells. Our data provide evidence that may link therapeutic response to the regulation of metabolism, and points to potential biomarkers for informing clinical decisions regarding the most effective therapies for patients with MPM.

Effect of inhibition of the lysophosphatidic acid receptor 1 on metastasis and metastatic dormancy in breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies identified the human nonmetastatic gene 23 (NME1, hereafter Nm23-H1) as the first metastasis suppressor gene. An inverse relationship between Nm23-H1 and expression of lysophosphatidic acid receptor 1 gene (LPAR1, also known as EDG2 or hereafter LPA1) has also been reported. However, the effects of LPA1 inhibition on primary tumor size, metastasis, and metastatic dormancy have not been investigated. METHODS: The LPA1 inhibitor Debio-0719 or LPA1 short hairpinned RNA (shRNA) was used. Primary tumor size and metastasis were investigated using the 4T1 spontaneous metastasis mouse model and the MDA-MB-231T experimental metastasis mouse model (n = 13 mice per group). Proliferation and p38 intracellular signaling in tumors and cell lines were determined by immunohistochemistry and western blot to investigate the effects of LPA1 inhibition on metastatic dormancy. An analysis of variance-based two-tailed t test was used to determine a statistically significant difference between treatment groups. RESULTS: In the 4T1 spontaneous metastasis mouse model, Debio-0719 inhibited the metastasis of 4T1 cells to the liver (mean = 25.2 liver metastases per histologic section for vehicle-treated mice vs 6.8 for Debio-0719-treated mice, 73.0% reduction, P < .001) and lungs (mean = 6.37 lesions per histologic section for vehicle-treated mice vs 0.73 for Debio-0719-treated mice, 88.5% reduction, P < .001), with no effect on primary tumor size. Similar results were observed using the MDA-MB-231T experimental pulmonary metastasis mouse model. LPA1 shRNA also inhibited metastasis but did not affect primary tumor size. In 4T1 metastases, but not primary tumors, expression of the proliferative markers Ki67 and pErk was reduced by Debio-0719, and phosphorylation of the p38 stress kinase was increased, indicative of metastatic dormancy. CONCLUSION: The data identify Debio-0719 as a drug candidate with metastasis suppressor activity, inducing dormancy at secondary tumor sites.