Segmented diffusion imaging with iterative motion-corrected reconstruction (SEDIMENT) for brain echo-planar imaging.

Multi-shot techniques offer improved resolution and signal-to-noise ratio for diffusion- weighted imaging, but make the acquisition vulnerable to shot-specific phase variations and inter-shot macroscopic motion. Several model-based reconstruction approaches with iterative phase correction have been proposed, but robust macroscopic motion estimation is still challenging. Segmented diffusion imaging with iterative motion-corrected reconstruction (SEDIMENT) uses iteratively refined data-driven shot navigators based on sensitivity encoding to cure phase and rigid in-plane motion artifacts. The iterative scheme is compared in simulations and in vivo with a non-iterative reference algorithm for echo-planar imaging with up to sixfold segmentation. The SEDIMENT framework supports partial Fourier acquisitions and furthermore includes options for data rejection and learning-based modules to improve robustness and convergence.

Artefact-free late gadolinium enhancement imaging in patients with implanted cardiac devices using a modified broadband sequence: current strategies and results from a real-world patient cohort.

Aims: Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging in patients with implanted cardiac devices is often limited by device-related imaging artefacts. Limitations can potentially be overcome by employing a broadband late gadolinium enhancement (LGE)-CMR imaging technique. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between implanted cardiac devices and the optimal frequency offset on broadband LGE-CMR imaging to increase the artefact-free visibility of myocardial segments. Methods and results: A phantom study was performed to characterize magnetic field disturbances related to 15 different cardiac devices. This was complemented by B0 and B1+ imaging of three different device types in four healthy volunteers. Findings were validated in 28 patients with an indication for arrhythmogenic substrate characterization before catheter ablation. In the phantom study, the placement of a PM, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) or CRT-D generator led to a significant impairment of the radiofrequency field. B0 mapping in phantom and volunteers showed the highest off-resonance maximum with CRT-D systems with the maximum off-resonance significantly decreasing for ICD or PM systems, respectively. In all patients, with conventional LGE imaging 73.1% (61.5-92.3%) of LV segments were free of device-related artefacts, while with the broadband LGE technique, a significant increase of artefact-free segments was achieved [96.4% (85.7-100%); P = 0.00008]. Conclusion: Using a modified broadband sequence for LGE imaging significantly increased the number of artefact-free myocardial segments thereby leading to improved diagnostic value of the CMR exam. Since the occurrence and extent of hyperintensity artefacts are closely related to the individual device, more studies are warranted to evaluate if the results can be extrapolated to other devices and manufacturers.

Comprehensive RF safety concept for parallel transmission MR.

PURPOSE: The goal of this study is to increase patient safety in parallel transmission (pTx) MRI systems. A major concern in these systems is radiofrequency-induced tissue heating, which can be avoided by specific absorption rate (SAR) prediction and SAR monitoring before and during the scan. METHODS: In this novel comprehensive safety concept, the SAR is predicted prior to the scan based on precalculated fields obtained from electromagnetic simulations on different body models. The radiofrequency fields and the global and local SAR are supervised in real time during the scan. This concept is integrated into a 3 T pTx MR scanner and validated experimentally. RESULTS: Phantom and in vivo experiments successfully validated the basic feasibility of the real-time SAR supervision concept. Supervising the SAR minimizes SAR overestimation. Monitoring the radiofrequency fields allows the detection of unsafe radiofrequency situations for the patient, which a SAR supervision system alone cannot detect. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates safe scanning in a pTx system. This new safety concept is also applicable for field strengths above 3 T and represents an important step toward safe operation of pTx systems.

Fast multistation water/fat imaging at 3T using DREAM-based RF shimming.

PURPOSE: To show the effect, efficiency, and image quality improvements achievable by Dual Refocusing Echo Acquisition Mode (DREAM)-based B1+ shimming in whole-body magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at 3T using the example of water/fat imaging. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 3D multistation, dual-echo mDixon gradient echo imaging was performed in 10 healthy subjects on a clinical 3T dual-transmit MRI system using station-to-station adapted B1+ shimming based on fast DREAM B1+ mapping. Whole-body data were obtained using conventional quadrature excitation and station-by-station adapted DREAM-based B1+ shimmed excitation, along with the corresponding B1+ maps for both excitation modes to assess image quality and radiofrequency (RF) performance. RESULTS: Station-dependent DREAM-based B1+ shimming showed significantly improved image quality in the stations covering the upper legs, pelvis, and upper body region for all subjects (P < 0.02). This finding is supported by corresponding B1+ maps showing an improved B1+ homogeneity and a more precise flip angle in the DREAM-based B1+ shimmed excitation (P < 0.01). Furthermore, the very short dual-channel DREAM B1+ mapping times of less than 2 seconds facilitate quick B1+ shimming. CONCLUSION: Station-dependent DREAM-based B1+ shimming improved RF performance and image quality and is therefore a promising technique for whole-body multistation imaging applications.

An in vivo comparison of the DREAM sequence with current RF shim technology.

OBJECT: In the present study the performance of the dual refocusing echo acquisition mode (DREAM) B1 (+) mapping sequence is evaluated for RF shimming in the abdomen at 3 T and validated against existing RF shim technology. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In vivo experiments were performed on 19 normal volunteers using a clinical 3 T dual channel MRI system. For each volunteer three different B1 (+) mapping techniques [DREAM, actual flip angle imaging (AFI) and saturated double angle method (SDAM)] were employed for RF shimming of the liver and to subsequently assess the quality of the obtained RF shim settings in terms of the achieved B1 (+) homogeneity and accuracy of the mean B1 (+). RESULTS: DREAM-based B1 (+) calibration led to an average homogeneity improvement of 39.1 % (AFI = 38.7 %, SDAM = 38.1 %) and a mean B1 (+) of 90.9 % of the prescribed B1 (+) (AFI = 88.9 %, SDAM = 92.0 %). The duration of the B1 (+) calibration scan was reduced from 30 s (AFI) and 15 s (SDAM) to 2.5 s (DREAM). CONCLUSION: DREAM accelerates RF shimming of the liver by an order of magnitude without compromising RF shimming performance.

Volumetric B1 (+) mapping of the brain at 7T using DREAM.

PURPOSE: To tailor and optimize the Dual Refocusing Echo Acquisition Mode (DREAM) approach for volumetric B1 (+) mapping of the brain at 7T. THEORY AND METHODS: A new DREAM echo timing scheme based on the virtual stimulated echo was derived to minimize potential effects of transverse relaxation. Furthermore, the DREAM B1 (+) mapping performance was investigated in simulations and experimentally in phantoms and volunteers for volumetric applications, studying and optimizing the accuracy of the sequence with respect to saturation effects, slice profile imperfections, and T1 and T2 relaxation. Volumetric brain protocols were compiled for different isotropic resolutions (5-2.5 mm) and SENSE factors, and were studied in vivo for different RF drive modes (circular/linear polarization) and the application of dielectric pads. RESULTS: Volumetric B1 (+) maps with good SNR at 2.5 mm isotropic resolution were acquired in about 20 s or less. The specific absorption rate was well below the safety limits for all scans. Mild flow artefacts were observed in the large vessels. Moreover, a slight contrast in the ventricle was observed in the B1 (+) maps, which could be attributed to T1 and T2 relaxation effects. CONCLUSION: DREAM enables safe, very fast, and robust volumetric B1 (+) mapping of the brain at ultrahigh fields.

Water/fat-resolved whole-heart Dixon coronary MRA: an initial comparison.

PURPOSE: To improve coronary vessel visualization in whole-heart coronary magnetic resonance angiography (CMRA), fat suppression is typically applied. However, recent studies have shown that cardiac fat can also have diagnostic value. To enhance CMRA image quality by improved fat suppression and to provide additionally fat-only information highly resolved, dual-echo Dixon CMRA approaches have been developed. METHODS: In this pilot study, approved by the institutional review board, 30 patients were investigated comparing whole-heart T1 -weighted dual-echo Dixon CMRA to conventional whole-heart fat-suppressed balanced fast field echo CMRA, integrated into a routine clinical protocol that includes the administration of gadolinium for perfusion and late enhancement measurements. Signal-to-noise-ratio, contrast-to-noise-ratio, and image quality were analyzed. RESULTS: Dual-echo Dixon significantly (P<0.000001) improved image quality compared with conventional fat-suppressed balanced fast field echo CMRA. Signal-to-noise-ratio and contrast-to-noise-ratio were found to be comparable when balanced fast field echo was performed before gadolinium and dual-echo Dixon fast field echo after gadolinium administration. CONCLUSION: Dual-echo Dixon can help to improve whole-heart CMRA image quality significantly. The additional whole-heart fat information delivered by this approach can support a number of new clinical studies addressing the diagnostic and the predictive value of intramyocardial and extramyocardial fatty deposits.

Ventricular B1 (+) perturbation at 7 T - real effect or measurement artifact?

The objective of this work was to explore the origin of local B1 (+) perturbations in the ventricles measured at 7 T. The B1 (+) field in the human brain was mapped using four different MRI techniques: dual refocusing echo acquisition mode (DREAM), actual flip-angle imaging (AFI), saturated double-angle method (SDAM) and Bloch-Siegert shift (BSS). Electromagnetic field simulations of B1 (+) were performed in male and female subject models to assess the dependence of the B1 (+) distribution on the dielectric properties of cerebrospinal fluid and subject anatomy. All four B1 (+) mapping techniques, based on different B1 (+) encoding mechanisms, show 'residual' structure of the ventricles, with a slightly enhanced B1 (+) field in the ventricles. Electromagnetic field simulations indicate that this effect is real and arises from the strong contrast in electrical conductivity between cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue. The simulated results were in good agreement with those obtained in three volunteers. Measured local B1 (+) perturbations in the ventricles at 7 T can be partially explained by the high contrast in electrical conductivity between cerebrospinal fluid and white matter, in addition to effects related to the particular B1 (+) measurement technique used.

Ultrafast volumetric B1 (+) mapping for improved radiofrequency shimming in 3 tesla body MRI.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the use of the recently proposed ultrafast B1 (+) mapping approach DREAM (Dual Refocusing Echo Acquisition Mode) for a refinement of patient adaptive radiofrequency (RF) shimming. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Volumetric DREAM B1 (+) calibration scans centered in the upper abdomen were acquired in 20 patients and three volunteers with written informed consent at a clinical dual source 3 Tesla (T) MR system. Based on these data, RF transmit settings were optimized by central-slice based RF-shimming (CS-RF shim) and by a refined, multi-slice adaptive approach (MS-RF shim). Simulations were performed to compare flip angle accuracy and B1 (+) homogeneity (cv = stddev/mean) achieved by CS-RF shim versus MS-RF shim for transversal and coronal slices, and for volume shimming on the spine. RESULTS: By MS-RF shim, mean deviation from nominal flip angle was reduced to less than 11% in all slices, all targets, and all subjects. Relative improvements in B1 (+) cv (MS-RF shim versus CS-RF) were up to 14%/39%/47% in transversal slices/coronal slices/ spine area. CONCLUSION: Volumetric information about B1 (+) can be used to further improve the accuracy and homogeneity of the B1 (+) field yielding higher diagnostic confidence, and will also be of value for various quantitative methods which are sensitive to flip angle imperfections.

Detection of RF unsafe devices using a parallel transmission MR system.

PURPOSE: The permanent presence of devices (pacemakers) inside a patient, or the need to use other devices (catheters), for diagnosis and treatment, usually represents a contraindication for a magnetic resonance examination. To help overcome this problem, a novel and noninvasive magnetic resonance system-based concept is proposed to detect potentially unsafe radio frequency (RF) conditions of such devices to ensure patient safety. METHODS: This concept makes use of parallel transmit technology by monitoring currents in individual RF transmit coil elements during RF transmission using suitable current sensors. For interventional devices, current changes can be directly measured, whereas for implanted devices, the use of reference signals is proposed, which cannot be measured in the patient. RESULTS: Coupling of unsafe devices to transmit coils led to detectable current changes in the elements because of energy absorption into the device. The concept was successfully tested on interventional and implantable devices and turned out to be so sensitive that even very weak RF coupling to these devices was detectable. CONCLUSION: In this study, basic feasibility to detect RF unsafe conditions was successfully demonstrated. In the future, RF patient safety may be improved in the presence of implanted devices, as well as during interventions using this concept.

DREAM--a novel approach for robust, ultrafast, multislice B1 mapping.

A novel multislice B1-mapping method dubbed dual refocusing echo acquisition mode is proposed, able to cover the whole transmit coil volume in only one second, which is more than an order of magnitude faster than established approaches. The dual refocusing echo acquisition mode technique employs a stimulated echo acquisition mode (STEAM) preparation sequence followed by a tailored single-shot gradient echo sequence, measuring simultaneously the stimulated echo and the free induction decay as gradient-recalled echoes, and determining the actual flip angle of the STEAM preparation radiofrequency pulses from the ratio of the two measured signals. Due to an elaborated timing scheme, the method is insensitive against susceptibility/chemical shift effects and can deliver a B0 phase map and a transceive phase map for free. The approach has only a weak T1 and T2 dependence and moreover, causes only a low specific absorption rate (SAR) burden. The accuracy of the method with respect to systematic and statistical errors is investigated both, theoretically and in experiments on phantoms. In addition, the performance of the approach is demonstrated in vivo in B1-mapping and radiofrequency shimming experiments on the abdomen, the legs, and the head on an eight-channel parallel transmit 3 T MRI system.

A specific absorption rate prediction concept for parallel transmission MR.

The specific absorption rate (SAR) is a limiting factor in high-field MR. SAR estimation is typically performed by numerical simulations using generic human body models. However, SAR concepts for single-channel radiofrequency transmission cannot be directly applied to multichannel systems. In this study, a novel and comprehensive SAR prediction concept for parallel radiofrequency transmission MRI is presented, based on precalculated magnetic and electric fields obtained from electromagnetic simulations of numerical body models. The application of so-called Q-matrices and further computational optimizations allow for a real-time estimation of the SAR prior to scanning. This SAR estimation method was fully integrated into an eight-channel whole body MRI system, and it facilitated the selection of different body models and body positions. Experimental validation of the global SAR in phantoms demonstrated a good qualitative and quantitative agreement with the predictions. An initial in vivo validation showed good qualitative agreement between simulated and measured amplitude of (excitation) radiofrequency field. The feasibility and practicability of this SAR prediction concept was shown paving the way for safe parallel radiofrequency transmission in high-field MR.

Local SAR management by RF shimming: a simulation study with multiple human body models.

OBJECT: Parallel transmission facilitates a relatively direct control of the RF transmit field. This is usually applied to improve the RF field homogeneity but might also allow a reduction of the specific absorption rate (SAR) to increase freedom in sequence design for high-field MRI. However, predicting the local SAR is challenging as it depends not only on the multi-channel drive but also on the individual patient. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The potential of RF shimming for SAR management is investigated for a 3 T body coil with eight independent transmit elements, based on Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) simulations. To address the patient-dependency of the SAR, nine human body models were generated from volunteer MR data and used in the simulations. A novel approach to RF shimming that enforces local SAR constraints is proposed. RESULTS: RF shimming substantially reduced the local SAR, consistently for all volunteers. Using SAR constraints, a further SAR reduction could be achieved with only minor compromises in RF performance. CONCLUSION: Parallel transmission can become an important tool to control and manage the local SAR in the human body. The practical use of local SAR constraints is feasible with consistent results for a variety of body models.

Specific absorption rate reduction in parallel transmission by k-space adaptive radiofrequency pulse design.

The specific absorption rate (SAR) is an important safety criterion, limiting many MR protocols with respect to the achievable contrast and scan duration. Parallel transmission enables control of the radiofrequency field in space and time and hence allows for SAR management. However, a trade-off exists between radiofrequency pulse performance and SAR reduction. To overcome this problem, in this work, parallel transmit radiofrequency pulses are adapted to the position in sampling k-space. In the central k-space, highly homogeneous but SAR-intensive radiofrequency shim settings are used to achieve optimal performance and contrast. In the outer k-space, the homogeneity requirement is relaxed to reduce the average SAR of the scan. The approach was experimentally verified on phantoms and volunteers using field echo and spin echo sequences. A reduction of the SAR by 25-50% was achieved without compromising image quality.

Eigenmode analysis of transmit coil array for tailored B1 mapping.

In vivo radiofrequency (RF) field B(1) mapping represents an essential prerequisite for parallel transmit applications. However, the large dynamic range of the transmit fields of the individual coil elements challenges the accuracy of MR-based B(1) mapping techniques. In the present work, the B(1) mapping error and its impact on the RF performance are studied based on a coil eigenmode analysis. Furthermore, the linear properties of the transmit chain are exploited to virtually adjust the weighting of the different coil eigenmodes in the B(1) mapping procedure, resulting in considerably reduced mapping errors. In addition, the weighting of the eigenmodes is tailored to potential target applications, e.g., specific absorption rate (SAR) reduced RF shimming or multidimensional RF pulses, resulting in improved RF performance. The basic theoretic principles of the concept are elaborated and validated by corresponding simulations. Furthermore, results on B(1) mapping and RF shimming experiments, performed on phantoms and in vivo using a 3-T scanner equipped with an eight-channel transmit/receive body coil, are presented to prove the feasibility of the approach.

T1 corrected B1 mapping using multi-TR gradient echo sequences.

This work presents a new approach toward a fast, simultaneous amplitude of radiofrequency field (B(1)) and T(1) mapping technique. The new method is based on the "actual flip angle imaging" (AFI) sequence. However, the single pulse repetition time (TR) pair used in the standard AFI sequence is replaced by multiple pulse repetition time sets. The resulting method was called "multiple TR B(1)/T(1) mapping" (MTM). In this study, MTM was investigated and compared to standard AFI in simulations and experiments. Feasibility and reliability of MTM were proven in phantom and in vivo experiments. Error propagation theory was applied to identify optimal sequence parameters and to facilitate a systematic noise comparison to standard AFI. In terms of accuracy and signal-to-noise ratio, the presented method outperforms standard AFI B(1) mapping over a wide range of T(1). Finally, the capability of MTM to determine T(1) was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively, yielding good agreement with reference measurements.

On the steady-state properties of actual flip angle imaging (AFI).

AFI (actual flip angle imaging) represents an interesting approach to map the B(1) transmit fields by measuring the spatial variations of the effective flip angle. However, the accuracy of the technique relies on the adequate spoiling of transverse magnetization. In the present work configuration theory was employed to develop a proper RF and gradient spoiling scheme for the AFI technique, making the sequence robust against off-resonance without the need of large spoiling gradients. Furthermore, numerical simulations were performed to predict the steady-state signals and, hence, the accuracy of the AFI technique as a function of the sequence and tissue parameters. It is shown that the spoiling properties of the sequence are mainly defined by the phase shift increment phi of the RF pulses and the diffusion sensitivity resulting from the unbalanced gradients of the sequence. Adequate spoiling may be achieved for a reasonable range of tissue parameters and flip angles for moderate spoiling gradients if a favorable value for phi is chosen. Phantom and in vivo head imaging experiments show an excellent agreement with the theoretical predictions, indicating that the proper operating range of the approach may be reliably predicted by the theory.

k-t PCA: temporally constrained k-t BLAST reconstruction using principal component analysis.

The k-t broad-use linear acquisition speed-up technique (BLAST) has become widespread for reducing image acquisition time in dynamic MRI. In its basic form k-t BLAST speeds up the data acquisition by undersampling k-space over time (referred to as k-t space). The resulting aliasing is resolved in the Fourier reciprocal x-f space (x = spatial position, f = temporal frequency) using an adaptive filter derived from a low-resolution estimate of the signal covariance. However, this filtering process tends to increase the reconstruction error or lower the achievable acceleration factor. This is problematic in applications exhibiting a broad range of temporal frequencies such as free-breathing myocardial perfusion imaging. We show that temporal basis functions calculated by subjecting the training data to principal component analysis (PCA) can be used to constrain the reconstruction such that the temporal resolution is improved. The presented method is called k-t PCA.

Quantification of myocardial perfusion using free-breathing MRI and prospective slice tracking.

Quantification of myocardial perfusion using first-pass magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is hampered by respiratory motion of the heart. Prospective slice tracking (PST) potentially overcomes this problem, and may provide an attractive alternative or supplement to current breath-hold techniques. This study demonstrates the feasibility of patient-adapted 3D PST on a 3.0 Tesla MR system. Eight patients underwent free-breathing studies of myocardial perfusion, simultaneously collecting data with and without PST. On average, PST reduced residual in-plane motion by a factor of 2, compared to the noncorrected images, resulting in a fourfold improvement of perfusion measurements. In addition, a comparison of perfusion measurements performed with and without PST showed that through-plane motion can contaminate measurements of myocardial perfusion. However, the quality of the navigator echoes on this field strength constituted a major source of error and needs further improvement to increase the accuracy and robustness of the method.

Advances in coronary MRA from vessel wall to whole heart imaging.

Since its introduction, magnetic resonance (MR) imaging has undergone continued technical and methodological development and found numerous practical clinical applications. Cardiac MR imaging is one of the more sophisticated applications of MR, owing to the inherent presence of flow and motion and specific anatomy. Among the different categories of cardiac MR imaging, coronary MR angiography (MRA) places particularly high demands on planning, spatial resolution, high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and precise cardiac and respiratory motion correction. However, recent advances in hardware, MR sequences, and motion detection techniques have made it possible to perform coronary MRA that includes volumetric acquisition of the entire heart as well as imaging of the vessel walls on a submillimeter scale within a clinically acceptable scan time. We discuss from a technical perspective some of the milestones leading to the current state of coronary MR imaging and outline recent developments that will further advance coronary MR imaging. We discuss planning procedure, contrast preparation mechanisms and MR sequences, motion correction, high-resolution coronary artery and vessel wall imaging, and fast volumetric scanning techniques. Although MR imaging has certain limitations in providing simultaneous speed, resolution, and high SNR, it nonetheless offers a dedicated scanning procedure that addresses most clinically relevant questions in the diagnosis of ischemic heart disease.